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'''Arthur Lee Samuel''', (1901 - July 29, 1990 <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gio_Wiederhold Gio Wiederhold], [[John McCarthy]], [[Edward Feigenbaum|Ed Feigenbaum]] ('''1990'''). ''Memorial Resolution: Arthur L. Samuel (1901 - 1990)''. [[AAAI#AIMAG|AI Magazine]], Vol. 11, No. 3</ref>)<br/>was an American computer game pioneer, who developed a [[Checkers]] program in the 50s, which appeared to be the world's first [[Learning|self-learning]] program. He already implemented a variation of [[Alpha-Beta|alpha-beta pruning]], which appeared to have been reinvented a number of times by [[John McCarthy]], [[Allen Newell]] with [[Herbert Simon]], [[Alexander Brudno]] and others. Samuel's program already used [[Bitboards|bitboards]] to [[Board Representation|represent]] the checkers board state. Arthur Samuel further was pioneer in machine learning, and first used the [[Reinforcement Learning|reinforcement learning]] technique later dubbed [[Temporal Difference Learning#TDLeaf|TDLeaf(λ)]], and, a few years later, [[Supervised Learning|supervised]] [[Automated Tuning#MoveAdaption|move adaption]] to [[Automated Tuning|tune]] the evaluation of his program <ref>[[Arthur Samuel]] ('''1967'''). ''Some Studies in Machine Learning. Using the Game of Checkers. II-Recent Progress''. [http://researcher.watson.ibm.com/researcher/files/us-beygel/samuel-checkers.pdf pdf]</ref>, where a structure of stacked linear evaluation functions was trained by computing a correlation measure based on the number of times the feature rated an alternative move higher than the desired move played by an expert <ref>[[Johannes Fürnkranz]] ('''2000'''). ''Machine Learning in Games: A Survey''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Research_Institute_for_Artificial_Intelligence Austrian Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence], OEFAI-TR-2000-3, [http://www.ofai.at/cgi-bin/get-tr?download=1&paper=oefai-tr-2000-31.pdf pdf]</ref>.