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Created page with "'''Home * People * Donald Michie''' FILE:donald-michie-2.jpg|border|right|thumb|link=http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dm.html|Donald Michie <ref>[http://www..."
'''[[Main Page|Home]] * [[People]] * Donald Michie'''
[[FILE:donald-michie-2.jpg|border|right|thumb|link=http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dm.html|Donald Michie <ref>[http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dm.html Donald Michie Home Page]</ref> ]]
'''Donald Michie''', (November 11, 1923 – July 7, 2007 <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1556846/Professor-Donald-Michie.html Professor Donald Michie], [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ Telegraph.co.uk] July 09, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2007/jul/10/uk.obituaries1 Obituary - Donald Michie] by [[Stephen Muggleton]], [http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian The Guardian], Tuesday July 10 2007</ref> <ref>[[David Levy]] ('''2007'''). ''Obituary Donald Michie (1923-2007)''. [[ICGA Journal#30_3|ICGA Journal, Vol. 30 No. 3]]</ref> )<br/>
was a British researcher and pioneer in [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory game theory]. During [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II World War II], Michie worked with [[Alan Turing]] at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bletchley_Park Bletchley Park], with [[Jack Good]] and [[Shaun Wylie]] et al. in the section [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newmanry Newmanry] headed by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Newman Max Newman], contributing to crack the German [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_SZ_40/42 Lorenz cipher] <ref>[[Jack Good]], [[Donald Michie]], [[Mathematician#GTimms|Geoffrey Timms]] ('''1945'''). ''[http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/index/tunnyreportindex.html General Report on Tunny]'' from [http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/index.html The Turing Archive for the History of Computing]</ref> <ref>[[The Computer History Museum#Codebreaking|From Codebreaking to Computing - Video]] from [[The Computer History Museum]]</ref>. In [[Timeline#1948|1947-48]], along with Wylie, Michie designed [[Machiavelli]], a rival of Turing's [[Turochamp]] program <ref>[[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith, J.]], Michie D. ('''1961'''). ''Machines that play games''. New Scientist, 12, 367-9.</ref> <ref>[http://www.fbi.fh-darmstadt.de/fileadmin/vmi/chronologie/index.htm Chronology of Computing] compiled by [[Mathematician#DSingmaster|David Singmaster]]</ref>.
Michie was head of the [[University of Edinburgh|University of Edinburgh's]] Department of Machine Intelligence from 1965 until 1985 <ref>[http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/about/AIhistory.html Artificial Intelligence at Edinburgh University : a Perspective]</ref> , when he left to found the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_Institute Turing Institute] in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow Glasgow] <ref>[http://www.turingarchive.org/trust/ Turing Trust - Historical Note] by Donald Michie: "In association with the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Strathclyde University of Strathclyde], the Turing Institute hosted seven public lectures in the period 1985-93"</ref>. Michie researched on game theory and computer games and chess. He was a close friend of [[David Levy]] and involved in the famous [[David Levy#TheLevyBet|Levy Bet]] with [[John McCarthy]], which occurred during an AI-workshop in Edinburgh <ref>[http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi4.html Machine Intelligence Volume 4]</ref> , where Michie affirmed McCarthy to take the challenge by David Levy and even want to share the bet on McCarthy's site <ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/chess/related_materials/oral-history/levy.oral_history.2005.102645437/index.php?iid=orl-4345632d88ad1 Oral History of David Levy] from [[The Computer History Museum]]</ref> .
=Photos=
[[FILE:HayesMichie1984.JPG|none|border|text-bottom|480px]]
[[Jean Hayes Michie]] and [[Donald Michie]], Edinburgh 1984 <ref>[[László Lindner]], A SZÁMÍTÓGÉPES SAKK KÉPEKBEN című melléklete - The pictures of the Beginning of Chess Computers</ref>
[[FILE:donald-michie-2003.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|480px|link=http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/donald-michie-2003.jpg]]
Donald Michie receiving his honorary degree from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Stirling Stirling University] in 2003 <ref>[http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dm.html Donald Michie Home Page]</ref>
<span id="MENACE"></span>
=Machine Learning=
Michie began his first experiments in [[Learning|machine learning]] in 1960. His [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tic-tac-toe tic-tac-toe] machine MENACE (Machine Educable Noughts And Crosses Engine) demonstrated the basic principle of a [[Reinforcement Learning|self-reinforcing learning]] mechanism. MENACE employed Michie's conceptually simple general-purpose learning algorithm BOXES <ref>[[Donald Michie]] ('''1961'''). ''Trial and Error''. Penguin Science Survey</ref> <ref> [[Martin Gardner]] ('''1969, 1991'''). ''The Unexpected Hanging and Other Mathematical Diversions''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster Simon & Schuster], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press University Of Chicago Press], Chapter 8: A Matchbox Game-Learning Machine</ref> <ref>[[Donald Michie]], Roger A. Chambers ('''1968'''). ''Boxes: An experiment on adaptive control''. In E. Dale and D. Michie, editors, [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi2.html Machine Intelligence 2], Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, pp. 137-152</ref> <ref>[[Alex Bell]] ('''1972'''). ''[http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/acl/literature/books/gamesplaying/overview.htm Games Playing with Computers]''. ''[http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/acl/literature/books/gamesplaying/p001.htm 1.3 NOUGHTS AND CROSSES]'', [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_%26_Unwin Allen & Unwin]</ref> <ref>[http://www.it.uu.se/edu/course/homepage/ai/menace UU/IT/AI exercise: Implementing MENACE], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_University Uppsala University]</ref> which could also discover robust control strategies for the pole balancing problem <ref>[http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/%7Efinton/poledriver.html Controller-less Driver For the Cart-Pole Problem]</ref> <ref>[http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/%7Efinton/qcontroller.html Q-Learning Controller for the Cart-Pole Problem]</ref> , but was soon employed industrially to evolve strategies for automatic control, such as controlling a steel mill <ref>[http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dmcv.html D. Michie CV]</ref>.
[[FILE:jamesbridle-playful.023.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|link=http://shorttermmemoryloss.com/menace/]]
Self build MENACE by James Bridle <ref>[http://shorttermmemoryloss.com/menace/ A New Theory of Awesomeness and Miracles] by [http://shorttermmemoryloss.com/ James Bridle]</ref><br/>
in the traditions of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_Robinson_%28codebreaking_machine%29 Heath Robinson] and [[Mathematician#Babbage|Charles Babbage]] <ref>[http://www.flickr.com/photos/stml/sets/72157622716067016/ Menace - Flickr Photo stream]</ref> <ref>[http://boingboing.net/2009/11/02/mechanical-computer.html Mechanical computer uses matchboxes and beans to learn Tic-Tac-Toe - Boing Boing]</ref>
=The Need for Search=
In ''King and Rook Against King: Historical Background and a Problem on the Infinite Board'' at the first [[Advances in Computer Chess 1|Advances in Computer Chess]] conference <ref>[[Donald Michie]] ('''1977'''). ''King and Rook Against King: Historical Background and a Problem on the Infinite Board''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 1]]</ref> , Donald Michie shows two positions, that are identical except one pawn, to demonstrate the need for [[Search|search]] <ref>[[Michael Gherrity]] ('''1993'''). ''A Game Learning Machine''. Ph.D. Thesis, [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego University of California, San Diego], available as [http://www.gherrity.org/thesis.ps.gz zipped postscript], page 13, 14</ref> .
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=Chess Endgames=
Quote by [[Maarten van Emden]] in ''I remember Donald Michie'' <ref>[http://vanemden.wordpress.com/2009/06/12/i-remember-donald-michie-1923-2007/ I remember Donald Michie (1923 – 2007) « A Programmers Place] by [[Maarten van Emden]], June 12, 2009</ref>:
In 1980 I spent another summer in Edinburgh as a guest of Donald Michie. Since the low point of 1975, thanks to assiduous and inventive joint pursuit of funding possibilities by Donald and [[Jean Hayes Michie|Jean]], the Machine Intelligence Research Unit was alive with work focused on [[Endgame|chess endgames]]. There were students, including [[Tim Niblett]] and [[Alen Shapiro]]. [[Danny Kopec]] was there, perhaps formally as a student, but de facto as the resident chess consultant. [[Ivan Bratko]] visited frequently. Alen was the administrator of the dream computing environment of that time: a small [[PDP-11]] running [[Unix]]. ...
Donald Michie demonstrated the Human Window phenomenon with chess end games. He proposed a form of describing end-game knowledge that he called “advice” and described a formal language, Advice Language One <ref>[[Donald Michie]] ('''1976'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1045272 AL1: a package for generating strategies from tables]''. ACM SIGART Bulletin, Issue 59</ref> , for expressing such advice. The language could be translated into a form that guided a computer to play the end-game at the level of skill of a chess expert. [[Soei Tan]], [[Ivan Bratko]] and [[Danny Kopec]] were chess experts who used this framework to implement specific end games.
Once again, I did not get it. I could not help acting in my then usual role of [[Prolog]] evangelist and wanted to demonstrate that the beauty of Prolog was that it rendered superfluous things like Advice Language One. Accordingly I wrote a Prolog program that played an end game using Advice in DM’s sense. DM generously allowed me my say in a paper in the Tenth Machine Intelligence workshop. It’s a nice paper, but it does not get it.
=Solving Chess?=
Quote by [[Kathe Spracklen|Kathleen Spracklen]] on Donald Michie and their experiments, excerpt from ''Oral History of Kathe and [[Dan Spracklen]]'' <ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/trustee/gardner-hendrie Gardner Hendrie] ('''2005'''). ''Oral History of Kathe and Dan Spracklen''. [http://archive.computerhistory.org/projects/chess/related_materials/oral-history/spacklen.oral_history.2005.102630821/spracklen.oral_history_transcript.2005.102630821.pdf pdf] from [[The Computer History Museum]]</ref>:
One of the most thrilling times of my entire life was the month that Dr. Donald Michie spent with us in San Diego. And he, of course, is - was head of the computer science department at Oxford, I believe, for decades. He was on the original team with Turing that broke the Enigma code. And already he was quite an elderly gentleman when he came to work with us but that wasn't stopping him from having a very full schedule as the head of the I think it was the Turing Institute in Glasgow that headed up. Quite, totally an amazing human being.
Delightful and totally amazing. And he had this concept that he wanted to try out that he thought might possibly solve computer chess. And we spent a month exploring it. It was the idea of reaching a steady state. The idea was that you would establish a number of parameters of positional analysis and your program would score, independently score vast arrays of positions using this set of known parameters. And then the program would basically perform a cluster analysis and so you'd do it on a number of positions and on game after game after game of Grand Master Chess. You submitted we just we used hundreds of thousands of positions.
And then what it did was it took the evaluation that known chess theories said this position is worth this much. So we had an external evaluation because it came out of known Master Chess games. And then we had all of these parameters that our program was capable of evaluating and then you used this data to tune your weighing of the parameters. And you could also tune the weighting for different stages of the game. So at the opening, you could use a certain weight, mid-game, you could use a certain weight, in the midst of your king being attacked, could use a set of weights, when you're pressing an attack, you could use a set of weights, when they're past pawns on the board, you know, there were several different stages of the game that could have different weightings. And we used a program called Knowledge Seeker that helped you to determine these relative weightings. And so after a month of training the program, what you basically did was you take your total set of positions and you would use something like 80% of them as a training set and then the last 20 as the test set. And you'd find out, well, how did the program do in evaluating these positions it had never seen based on these that it had seen. And it did just a breathtaking job of determining the correct worth of the positions. And so we were so excited. We were going to turn it loose on its first play a game of chess. We were going to use this as the positional evaluator.
Yeah. It was, like, oh, it was breathtaking. And we watched the program play chess. It was- you could gasp for breath. No computer program ever played a game of chess like that. It looked like an incredibly promising seven-year-old. We lost the game in just a few moves but it lost it brilliantly. <laughter> It got its queen out there, it maneuvered its knight, it launched a king side attack, it sacrificed its queen. <laughter> Well, of course it sacrificed its queen. Do you realize, in every single Grand Master game of chess, when you sacrifice your queen, it's phenomenally brilliant. You are winning the game. So if you can find a way to get your queen out there and sacrifice her, well, you've won.
=AI as Sport=
Quote by [[John McCarthy]] from ''AI as Sport'' <ref>[[John McCarthy]] ('''1997'''). ''AI as Sport''. Science, Vol. 276, June 6, pp. 1518-1519.</ref><ref>[http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/newborn/newborn.html AI as Sport] by [[John McCarthy]]</ref>:
Besides AI work aimed at tournament play, particular aspects of the game have illuminated the intellectual mechanisms involved. [[Barbara Liskov]] demonstrated that what chess books teach about how to win certain [[Endgame|endgames]] is not a program but more like a predicate comparing two positions to see if one is an improvement on the other. Such qualitative comparisons are an important feature of human intelligence and are needed for AI. Donald Michie, [[Ivan Bratko]], [[Alen Shapiro]], [[David Wilkins]], and others have also used chess as a Drosophila to study intelligence. [[Monroe Newborn|Newborn]] ignores this work, because it is not oriented to tournament play.
=See also=
* [[The Computer History Museum#Codebreaking|From Codebreaking to Computing - Video]] from [[The Computer History Museum]]
* [[Machiavelli]]
=Selected Publications=
<ref>[http://ticc.uvt.nl/icga/journal/docs/References.pdf ICGA Reference Database] (pdf)</ref> <ref>[http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/~dm/dmpubs.html D. Michie publications]</ref>
==1945==
* [[Jack Good]], [[Donald Michie]], [[Mathematician#GTimms|Geoffrey Timms]] ('''1945'''). ''[http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/index/tunnyreportindex.html General Report on Tunny]'' from [http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/index.html The Turing Archive for the History of Computing]
==1960 ...==
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1961'''). ''Trial and Error''. Penguin Science Survey
* [[John Maynard Smith]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1961'''). ''Machines that play games''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientist New Scientist], 12, 367-9. [http://books.google.com/books?id=lo7r0zX_T0sC&lpg=PA369&dq=Machines%20that%20play%20games.%201961%2C%20New%20Scientist%2C%2012&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false google books] <ref>[http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/CSE/members/jms/JMSpublications.pdf Publications of John Maynard Smith] (pdf)</ref>
* [[Jim Doran]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1966'''). ''Experiments with the Graph Traverser Program.'' Proc. Roy. Soc. (A), Vol. 294, pp. 235-259.
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1966'''). ''Game Playing and Game Learning Automata.'' Advances in Programming and Non-Numerical Computation, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Fox Leslie Fox] (ed.), pp. 183-200. Oxford, Pergamon. » Includes Appendix: ''Rules of SOMAC'' by [[John Maynard Smith]], introduces [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectiminimax_tree Expectiminimax tree] <ref>see [[Helmut Richter#Swapoff|Swap-off]] by [[Helmut Richter]]</ref>
* [[Donald Michie]], Roger A. Chambers ('''1968'''). ''Boxes: An experiment on adaptive control''. In E. Dale and D. Michie, editors, [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi2.html Machine Intelligence 2], Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, pp. 137-152, [http://aitopics.org/sites/default/files/classic/Machine_Intelligence_2/MI2-Ch9-MichieChambers.pdf pdf]
==1970 ...==
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1974'''). ''On Machine Intelligence''. Edinburgh: University Press, ISBN 10: 085224262X, ISBN 13: 9780852242629, [http://www.abebooks.com/servlet/SearchResults?isbn=085224262X abebooks.com], [http://www.alibris.com/search/books/qwork/4836304/used/On%20machine%20intelligence alibris.com], [http://www.biblio.com/isbn/9780852242629.html biblio.com]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1976'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1045272 AL1: a package for generating strategies from tables]''. [[ACM#SIG|ACM SIGART Bulletin]], Issue 59
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1976'''). ''An Advice-Taking System for Computer Chess.'' Computer Bulletin, Ser. 2, Vol. 10, pp. 12-14. ISSN 0010-4531.
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1977'''). ''King and Rook Against King: Historical Background and a Problem on the Infinite Board''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 1]]
* [[Donald Michie]], [[Ivan Bratko]] ('''1978'''). ''Advice Table Representations of Chess End-Game Knowledge''. Proceedings 3rd AISB/GI Conference, pp. 194-200.
* [[Ivan Bratko]], [[Danny Kopec]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1978'''). ''Pattern-Based Representation of Chess Endgame Knowledge.'' [http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/2.toc The Computer Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2], pp. 149-153. available as [http://www.sci.brooklyn.cuny.edu/%7Ekopec/Publications/Publications/O_44_C.pdf pdf reprint]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1979'''). ''The Computer Attacks Moravec Problem''. [[Personal Computing#3_10|Personal Computing, Vol. 3, No. 10]], pp. 73 <ref>[http://www.arves.org/arves/index.php/en/endgamestudies/studies-by-composer/589-moravec-josef-1882-1969 www.arves.org - Moravec, Josef 1882-1969]</ref>
==1980 ...==
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1980'''). ''Chess with Computers''. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 215-227. ISSN 0308-0188.
* [[Ivan Bratko]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1980'''). ''[http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/4/353.abstract An Advice Program For a Complex Chess Programming Task]''. [http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/4.toc Computer Journal, Vol. 23, No. 4], pp. 350-353.
* [[Ivan Bratko]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1980'''). ''A Representation of Pattern-Knowledge in Chess Endgames.'' [[Advances in Computer Chess 2]]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1981'''). ''[http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/3/278.abstract A Theory of Evaluative Comments in Chess with a Note on Minimaxing]''. [http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/3.toc The Computer Journal, Vol. 24, No. 3], pp. 278-286. reprinted in [[Computer Chess Compendium]]
* [[Jaap van den Herik]] ('''1981'''). ''Computer Chess Today and Tomorrow: An Interview with [[Donald Michie]]''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 3]], [[Computer Chess Reports|Computer Chess Digest Annual 1984]]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1982'''). ''Chess with computers. Machine Intelligence and Related Topics''. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1982'''). ''Information and Complexity in Chess''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 3]]
* [[Danny Kopec]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1983'''). ''Mismatch between machine representations and human concepts: dangers and remedies.'' FAST series No. 9 report. European Community, Brussels.
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1986'''). ''The superarticulacy phenomenon in the context of software manufacture.'' Proc. Roy. Soc. (A).
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1986'''). ''Towards a Knowledge Accelerator''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 4]]
* [[Alen Shapiro]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1986'''). ''A Self-commenting Facility for Inductively Synthesised Endgame Expertise''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 4]]
* [[Donald Michie]], [[Ivan Bratko]] ('''1987'''). ''Ideas on Knowledge Synthesis Stemming from the KBBKN Endgame''. [[ICGA Journal#10_1|ICCA Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1]]
* [[Donald Michie]], [[Ivan Bratko]] ('''1987'''). ''Ideas on Knowledge Synthesis - a Correction''. [[ICGA Journal#10_2|ICCA Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2]]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1989'''). ''Automating the Discovery of Structure in Time-Varying Data''. [[WCCC 1989#Workshop|Workshop on New Directions in Game-Tree Search]]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1989'''). ''Brute Force in Chess and Science''. [[ICGA Journal#12_3|ICCA Journal, Vol. 12, No. 3]]
* [[Donald Michie]], [[Michael Bain]] ('''1989'''). ''Machines That Learn and Machines That Teach''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/scai/scai1989.html#MichieB89 SCAI 1989]
* [[Stephen Muggleton]], [[Michael Bain]], [[Jean Hayes Michie]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1989'''). ''An Experimental Comparison of Human and Machine Learning Formalisms''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/icml/ml1989.html#MuggletonBMM89 6. ML 1989], [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~shm/Papers/ml6paper.pdf pdf]
==1990 ...==
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1990'''). ''Brute Force in Chess and Science''. [[Computers, Chess, and Cognition]]
* [[Donald Michie]], [[Ivan Bratko]] ('''1991'''). ''Comments to `Chunking for Experience'''. [[ICGA Journal#14_1|ICCA Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1]]
* [[Jean Hayes Michie]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1998'''). ''Simulator-Mediated Acquisition of a Dynamic Control Skill''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/journals/ais/ais12.html#MichieM98 AI & Sociaty Vol. 12 No. 1]
=External Links=
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Michie Donald Michie from Wikipedia]
* [http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=102659 The Mathematics Genealogy Project - Donald Michie]
* [http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dmcv.html Curriculum Vitae - Professor Donald Michie]
* [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi.html The Machine Intelligence series]
* [http://www.turingarchive.org/trust/ Turing Trust - Historical Note] by Donald Michie
* [http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/idom/irlist/new/1990/90-vii-10-16/Turing_1990_-_Final_Reminder.html Turing 1990 - Final Reminder] From: Turing Conference
* [http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/events/ccs2002/ Artificial Intelligence - Recollections of the Pioneers]
=References=
<references />
'''[[People|Up one level]]'''
[[FILE:donald-michie-2.jpg|border|right|thumb|link=http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dm.html|Donald Michie <ref>[http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dm.html Donald Michie Home Page]</ref> ]]
'''Donald Michie''', (November 11, 1923 – July 7, 2007 <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1556846/Professor-Donald-Michie.html Professor Donald Michie], [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ Telegraph.co.uk] July 09, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2007/jul/10/uk.obituaries1 Obituary - Donald Michie] by [[Stephen Muggleton]], [http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian The Guardian], Tuesday July 10 2007</ref> <ref>[[David Levy]] ('''2007'''). ''Obituary Donald Michie (1923-2007)''. [[ICGA Journal#30_3|ICGA Journal, Vol. 30 No. 3]]</ref> )<br/>
was a British researcher and pioneer in [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory game theory]. During [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II World War II], Michie worked with [[Alan Turing]] at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bletchley_Park Bletchley Park], with [[Jack Good]] and [[Shaun Wylie]] et al. in the section [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newmanry Newmanry] headed by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Newman Max Newman], contributing to crack the German [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_SZ_40/42 Lorenz cipher] <ref>[[Jack Good]], [[Donald Michie]], [[Mathematician#GTimms|Geoffrey Timms]] ('''1945'''). ''[http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/index/tunnyreportindex.html General Report on Tunny]'' from [http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/index.html The Turing Archive for the History of Computing]</ref> <ref>[[The Computer History Museum#Codebreaking|From Codebreaking to Computing - Video]] from [[The Computer History Museum]]</ref>. In [[Timeline#1948|1947-48]], along with Wylie, Michie designed [[Machiavelli]], a rival of Turing's [[Turochamp]] program <ref>[[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith, J.]], Michie D. ('''1961'''). ''Machines that play games''. New Scientist, 12, 367-9.</ref> <ref>[http://www.fbi.fh-darmstadt.de/fileadmin/vmi/chronologie/index.htm Chronology of Computing] compiled by [[Mathematician#DSingmaster|David Singmaster]]</ref>.
Michie was head of the [[University of Edinburgh|University of Edinburgh's]] Department of Machine Intelligence from 1965 until 1985 <ref>[http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/about/AIhistory.html Artificial Intelligence at Edinburgh University : a Perspective]</ref> , when he left to found the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_Institute Turing Institute] in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow Glasgow] <ref>[http://www.turingarchive.org/trust/ Turing Trust - Historical Note] by Donald Michie: "In association with the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Strathclyde University of Strathclyde], the Turing Institute hosted seven public lectures in the period 1985-93"</ref>. Michie researched on game theory and computer games and chess. He was a close friend of [[David Levy]] and involved in the famous [[David Levy#TheLevyBet|Levy Bet]] with [[John McCarthy]], which occurred during an AI-workshop in Edinburgh <ref>[http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi4.html Machine Intelligence Volume 4]</ref> , where Michie affirmed McCarthy to take the challenge by David Levy and even want to share the bet on McCarthy's site <ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/chess/related_materials/oral-history/levy.oral_history.2005.102645437/index.php?iid=orl-4345632d88ad1 Oral History of David Levy] from [[The Computer History Museum]]</ref> .
=Photos=
[[FILE:HayesMichie1984.JPG|none|border|text-bottom|480px]]
[[Jean Hayes Michie]] and [[Donald Michie]], Edinburgh 1984 <ref>[[László Lindner]], A SZÁMÍTÓGÉPES SAKK KÉPEKBEN című melléklete - The pictures of the Beginning of Chess Computers</ref>
[[FILE:donald-michie-2003.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|480px|link=http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/donald-michie-2003.jpg]]
Donald Michie receiving his honorary degree from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Stirling Stirling University] in 2003 <ref>[http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dm.html Donald Michie Home Page]</ref>
<span id="MENACE"></span>
=Machine Learning=
Michie began his first experiments in [[Learning|machine learning]] in 1960. His [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tic-tac-toe tic-tac-toe] machine MENACE (Machine Educable Noughts And Crosses Engine) demonstrated the basic principle of a [[Reinforcement Learning|self-reinforcing learning]] mechanism. MENACE employed Michie's conceptually simple general-purpose learning algorithm BOXES <ref>[[Donald Michie]] ('''1961'''). ''Trial and Error''. Penguin Science Survey</ref> <ref> [[Martin Gardner]] ('''1969, 1991'''). ''The Unexpected Hanging and Other Mathematical Diversions''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster Simon & Schuster], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press University Of Chicago Press], Chapter 8: A Matchbox Game-Learning Machine</ref> <ref>[[Donald Michie]], Roger A. Chambers ('''1968'''). ''Boxes: An experiment on adaptive control''. In E. Dale and D. Michie, editors, [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi2.html Machine Intelligence 2], Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, pp. 137-152</ref> <ref>[[Alex Bell]] ('''1972'''). ''[http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/acl/literature/books/gamesplaying/overview.htm Games Playing with Computers]''. ''[http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/acl/literature/books/gamesplaying/p001.htm 1.3 NOUGHTS AND CROSSES]'', [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_%26_Unwin Allen & Unwin]</ref> <ref>[http://www.it.uu.se/edu/course/homepage/ai/menace UU/IT/AI exercise: Implementing MENACE], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_University Uppsala University]</ref> which could also discover robust control strategies for the pole balancing problem <ref>[http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/%7Efinton/poledriver.html Controller-less Driver For the Cart-Pole Problem]</ref> <ref>[http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/%7Efinton/qcontroller.html Q-Learning Controller for the Cart-Pole Problem]</ref> , but was soon employed industrially to evolve strategies for automatic control, such as controlling a steel mill <ref>[http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dmcv.html D. Michie CV]</ref>.
[[FILE:jamesbridle-playful.023.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|link=http://shorttermmemoryloss.com/menace/]]
Self build MENACE by James Bridle <ref>[http://shorttermmemoryloss.com/menace/ A New Theory of Awesomeness and Miracles] by [http://shorttermmemoryloss.com/ James Bridle]</ref><br/>
in the traditions of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_Robinson_%28codebreaking_machine%29 Heath Robinson] and [[Mathematician#Babbage|Charles Babbage]] <ref>[http://www.flickr.com/photos/stml/sets/72157622716067016/ Menace - Flickr Photo stream]</ref> <ref>[http://boingboing.net/2009/11/02/mechanical-computer.html Mechanical computer uses matchboxes and beans to learn Tic-Tac-Toe - Boing Boing]</ref>
=The Need for Search=
In ''King and Rook Against King: Historical Background and a Problem on the Infinite Board'' at the first [[Advances in Computer Chess 1|Advances in Computer Chess]] conference <ref>[[Donald Michie]] ('''1977'''). ''King and Rook Against King: Historical Background and a Problem on the Infinite Board''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 1]]</ref> , Donald Michie shows two positions, that are identical except one pawn, to demonstrate the need for [[Search|search]] <ref>[[Michael Gherrity]] ('''1993'''). ''A Game Learning Machine''. Ph.D. Thesis, [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego University of California, San Diego], available as [http://www.gherrity.org/thesis.ps.gz zipped postscript], page 13, 14</ref> .
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=Chess Endgames=
Quote by [[Maarten van Emden]] in ''I remember Donald Michie'' <ref>[http://vanemden.wordpress.com/2009/06/12/i-remember-donald-michie-1923-2007/ I remember Donald Michie (1923 – 2007) « A Programmers Place] by [[Maarten van Emden]], June 12, 2009</ref>:
In 1980 I spent another summer in Edinburgh as a guest of Donald Michie. Since the low point of 1975, thanks to assiduous and inventive joint pursuit of funding possibilities by Donald and [[Jean Hayes Michie|Jean]], the Machine Intelligence Research Unit was alive with work focused on [[Endgame|chess endgames]]. There were students, including [[Tim Niblett]] and [[Alen Shapiro]]. [[Danny Kopec]] was there, perhaps formally as a student, but de facto as the resident chess consultant. [[Ivan Bratko]] visited frequently. Alen was the administrator of the dream computing environment of that time: a small [[PDP-11]] running [[Unix]]. ...
Donald Michie demonstrated the Human Window phenomenon with chess end games. He proposed a form of describing end-game knowledge that he called “advice” and described a formal language, Advice Language One <ref>[[Donald Michie]] ('''1976'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1045272 AL1: a package for generating strategies from tables]''. ACM SIGART Bulletin, Issue 59</ref> , for expressing such advice. The language could be translated into a form that guided a computer to play the end-game at the level of skill of a chess expert. [[Soei Tan]], [[Ivan Bratko]] and [[Danny Kopec]] were chess experts who used this framework to implement specific end games.
Once again, I did not get it. I could not help acting in my then usual role of [[Prolog]] evangelist and wanted to demonstrate that the beauty of Prolog was that it rendered superfluous things like Advice Language One. Accordingly I wrote a Prolog program that played an end game using Advice in DM’s sense. DM generously allowed me my say in a paper in the Tenth Machine Intelligence workshop. It’s a nice paper, but it does not get it.
=Solving Chess?=
Quote by [[Kathe Spracklen|Kathleen Spracklen]] on Donald Michie and their experiments, excerpt from ''Oral History of Kathe and [[Dan Spracklen]]'' <ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/trustee/gardner-hendrie Gardner Hendrie] ('''2005'''). ''Oral History of Kathe and Dan Spracklen''. [http://archive.computerhistory.org/projects/chess/related_materials/oral-history/spacklen.oral_history.2005.102630821/spracklen.oral_history_transcript.2005.102630821.pdf pdf] from [[The Computer History Museum]]</ref>:
One of the most thrilling times of my entire life was the month that Dr. Donald Michie spent with us in San Diego. And he, of course, is - was head of the computer science department at Oxford, I believe, for decades. He was on the original team with Turing that broke the Enigma code. And already he was quite an elderly gentleman when he came to work with us but that wasn't stopping him from having a very full schedule as the head of the I think it was the Turing Institute in Glasgow that headed up. Quite, totally an amazing human being.
Delightful and totally amazing. And he had this concept that he wanted to try out that he thought might possibly solve computer chess. And we spent a month exploring it. It was the idea of reaching a steady state. The idea was that you would establish a number of parameters of positional analysis and your program would score, independently score vast arrays of positions using this set of known parameters. And then the program would basically perform a cluster analysis and so you'd do it on a number of positions and on game after game after game of Grand Master Chess. You submitted we just we used hundreds of thousands of positions.
And then what it did was it took the evaluation that known chess theories said this position is worth this much. So we had an external evaluation because it came out of known Master Chess games. And then we had all of these parameters that our program was capable of evaluating and then you used this data to tune your weighing of the parameters. And you could also tune the weighting for different stages of the game. So at the opening, you could use a certain weight, mid-game, you could use a certain weight, in the midst of your king being attacked, could use a set of weights, when you're pressing an attack, you could use a set of weights, when they're past pawns on the board, you know, there were several different stages of the game that could have different weightings. And we used a program called Knowledge Seeker that helped you to determine these relative weightings. And so after a month of training the program, what you basically did was you take your total set of positions and you would use something like 80% of them as a training set and then the last 20 as the test set. And you'd find out, well, how did the program do in evaluating these positions it had never seen based on these that it had seen. And it did just a breathtaking job of determining the correct worth of the positions. And so we were so excited. We were going to turn it loose on its first play a game of chess. We were going to use this as the positional evaluator.
Yeah. It was, like, oh, it was breathtaking. And we watched the program play chess. It was- you could gasp for breath. No computer program ever played a game of chess like that. It looked like an incredibly promising seven-year-old. We lost the game in just a few moves but it lost it brilliantly. <laughter> It got its queen out there, it maneuvered its knight, it launched a king side attack, it sacrificed its queen. <laughter> Well, of course it sacrificed its queen. Do you realize, in every single Grand Master game of chess, when you sacrifice your queen, it's phenomenally brilliant. You are winning the game. So if you can find a way to get your queen out there and sacrifice her, well, you've won.
=AI as Sport=
Quote by [[John McCarthy]] from ''AI as Sport'' <ref>[[John McCarthy]] ('''1997'''). ''AI as Sport''. Science, Vol. 276, June 6, pp. 1518-1519.</ref><ref>[http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/newborn/newborn.html AI as Sport] by [[John McCarthy]]</ref>:
Besides AI work aimed at tournament play, particular aspects of the game have illuminated the intellectual mechanisms involved. [[Barbara Liskov]] demonstrated that what chess books teach about how to win certain [[Endgame|endgames]] is not a program but more like a predicate comparing two positions to see if one is an improvement on the other. Such qualitative comparisons are an important feature of human intelligence and are needed for AI. Donald Michie, [[Ivan Bratko]], [[Alen Shapiro]], [[David Wilkins]], and others have also used chess as a Drosophila to study intelligence. [[Monroe Newborn|Newborn]] ignores this work, because it is not oriented to tournament play.
=See also=
* [[The Computer History Museum#Codebreaking|From Codebreaking to Computing - Video]] from [[The Computer History Museum]]
* [[Machiavelli]]
=Selected Publications=
<ref>[http://ticc.uvt.nl/icga/journal/docs/References.pdf ICGA Reference Database] (pdf)</ref> <ref>[http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/~dm/dmpubs.html D. Michie publications]</ref>
==1945==
* [[Jack Good]], [[Donald Michie]], [[Mathematician#GTimms|Geoffrey Timms]] ('''1945'''). ''[http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/index/tunnyreportindex.html General Report on Tunny]'' from [http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/index.html The Turing Archive for the History of Computing]
==1960 ...==
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1961'''). ''Trial and Error''. Penguin Science Survey
* [[John Maynard Smith]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1961'''). ''Machines that play games''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientist New Scientist], 12, 367-9. [http://books.google.com/books?id=lo7r0zX_T0sC&lpg=PA369&dq=Machines%20that%20play%20games.%201961%2C%20New%20Scientist%2C%2012&pg=PA367#v=onepage&q&f=false google books] <ref>[http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/CSE/members/jms/JMSpublications.pdf Publications of John Maynard Smith] (pdf)</ref>
* [[Jim Doran]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1966'''). ''Experiments with the Graph Traverser Program.'' Proc. Roy. Soc. (A), Vol. 294, pp. 235-259.
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1966'''). ''Game Playing and Game Learning Automata.'' Advances in Programming and Non-Numerical Computation, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Fox Leslie Fox] (ed.), pp. 183-200. Oxford, Pergamon. » Includes Appendix: ''Rules of SOMAC'' by [[John Maynard Smith]], introduces [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectiminimax_tree Expectiminimax tree] <ref>see [[Helmut Richter#Swapoff|Swap-off]] by [[Helmut Richter]]</ref>
* [[Donald Michie]], Roger A. Chambers ('''1968'''). ''Boxes: An experiment on adaptive control''. In E. Dale and D. Michie, editors, [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi2.html Machine Intelligence 2], Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, pp. 137-152, [http://aitopics.org/sites/default/files/classic/Machine_Intelligence_2/MI2-Ch9-MichieChambers.pdf pdf]
==1970 ...==
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1974'''). ''On Machine Intelligence''. Edinburgh: University Press, ISBN 10: 085224262X, ISBN 13: 9780852242629, [http://www.abebooks.com/servlet/SearchResults?isbn=085224262X abebooks.com], [http://www.alibris.com/search/books/qwork/4836304/used/On%20machine%20intelligence alibris.com], [http://www.biblio.com/isbn/9780852242629.html biblio.com]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1976'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1045272 AL1: a package for generating strategies from tables]''. [[ACM#SIG|ACM SIGART Bulletin]], Issue 59
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1976'''). ''An Advice-Taking System for Computer Chess.'' Computer Bulletin, Ser. 2, Vol. 10, pp. 12-14. ISSN 0010-4531.
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1977'''). ''King and Rook Against King: Historical Background and a Problem on the Infinite Board''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 1]]
* [[Donald Michie]], [[Ivan Bratko]] ('''1978'''). ''Advice Table Representations of Chess End-Game Knowledge''. Proceedings 3rd AISB/GI Conference, pp. 194-200.
* [[Ivan Bratko]], [[Danny Kopec]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1978'''). ''Pattern-Based Representation of Chess Endgame Knowledge.'' [http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/2.toc The Computer Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2], pp. 149-153. available as [http://www.sci.brooklyn.cuny.edu/%7Ekopec/Publications/Publications/O_44_C.pdf pdf reprint]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1979'''). ''The Computer Attacks Moravec Problem''. [[Personal Computing#3_10|Personal Computing, Vol. 3, No. 10]], pp. 73 <ref>[http://www.arves.org/arves/index.php/en/endgamestudies/studies-by-composer/589-moravec-josef-1882-1969 www.arves.org - Moravec, Josef 1882-1969]</ref>
==1980 ...==
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1980'''). ''Chess with Computers''. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 215-227. ISSN 0308-0188.
* [[Ivan Bratko]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1980'''). ''[http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/4/353.abstract An Advice Program For a Complex Chess Programming Task]''. [http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/4.toc Computer Journal, Vol. 23, No. 4], pp. 350-353.
* [[Ivan Bratko]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1980'''). ''A Representation of Pattern-Knowledge in Chess Endgames.'' [[Advances in Computer Chess 2]]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1981'''). ''[http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/3/278.abstract A Theory of Evaluative Comments in Chess with a Note on Minimaxing]''. [http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/3.toc The Computer Journal, Vol. 24, No. 3], pp. 278-286. reprinted in [[Computer Chess Compendium]]
* [[Jaap van den Herik]] ('''1981'''). ''Computer Chess Today and Tomorrow: An Interview with [[Donald Michie]]''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 3]], [[Computer Chess Reports|Computer Chess Digest Annual 1984]]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1982'''). ''Chess with computers. Machine Intelligence and Related Topics''. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1982'''). ''Information and Complexity in Chess''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 3]]
* [[Danny Kopec]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1983'''). ''Mismatch between machine representations and human concepts: dangers and remedies.'' FAST series No. 9 report. European Community, Brussels.
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1986'''). ''The superarticulacy phenomenon in the context of software manufacture.'' Proc. Roy. Soc. (A).
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1986'''). ''Towards a Knowledge Accelerator''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 4]]
* [[Alen Shapiro]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1986'''). ''A Self-commenting Facility for Inductively Synthesised Endgame Expertise''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 4]]
* [[Donald Michie]], [[Ivan Bratko]] ('''1987'''). ''Ideas on Knowledge Synthesis Stemming from the KBBKN Endgame''. [[ICGA Journal#10_1|ICCA Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1]]
* [[Donald Michie]], [[Ivan Bratko]] ('''1987'''). ''Ideas on Knowledge Synthesis - a Correction''. [[ICGA Journal#10_2|ICCA Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2]]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1989'''). ''Automating the Discovery of Structure in Time-Varying Data''. [[WCCC 1989#Workshop|Workshop on New Directions in Game-Tree Search]]
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1989'''). ''Brute Force in Chess and Science''. [[ICGA Journal#12_3|ICCA Journal, Vol. 12, No. 3]]
* [[Donald Michie]], [[Michael Bain]] ('''1989'''). ''Machines That Learn and Machines That Teach''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/scai/scai1989.html#MichieB89 SCAI 1989]
* [[Stephen Muggleton]], [[Michael Bain]], [[Jean Hayes Michie]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1989'''). ''An Experimental Comparison of Human and Machine Learning Formalisms''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/icml/ml1989.html#MuggletonBMM89 6. ML 1989], [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~shm/Papers/ml6paper.pdf pdf]
==1990 ...==
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1990'''). ''Brute Force in Chess and Science''. [[Computers, Chess, and Cognition]]
* [[Donald Michie]], [[Ivan Bratko]] ('''1991'''). ''Comments to `Chunking for Experience'''. [[ICGA Journal#14_1|ICCA Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1]]
* [[Jean Hayes Michie]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1998'''). ''Simulator-Mediated Acquisition of a Dynamic Control Skill''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/journals/ais/ais12.html#MichieM98 AI & Sociaty Vol. 12 No. 1]
=External Links=
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Michie Donald Michie from Wikipedia]
* [http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=102659 The Mathematics Genealogy Project - Donald Michie]
* [http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/%7Edm/dmcv.html Curriculum Vitae - Professor Donald Michie]
* [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi.html The Machine Intelligence series]
* [http://www.turingarchive.org/trust/ Turing Trust - Historical Note] by Donald Michie
* [http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/idom/irlist/new/1990/90-vii-10-16/Turing_1990_-_Final_Reminder.html Turing 1990 - Final Reminder] From: Turing Conference
* [http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/events/ccs2002/ Artificial Intelligence - Recollections of the Pioneers]
=References=
<references />
'''[[People|Up one level]]'''
