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'''[[Main Page|Home]] * [[Games]] * Othello'''
[[FILE:Othello (Reversi) board.jpg|border|right|thumb|Reversi/Othello <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversi Reversi from Wikipedia]</ref> ]]
'''Othello''',
or differing in not having a defined starting position, '''Reversi''', is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-player_game two-player] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_%28game_theory%29 zero-sum] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_information perfect information] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_strategy abstract strategy] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_game board game], usually played on a board with 8 rows and 8 columns and a set of light and a dark turnable pieces for each side. The player's goal is to have a majority of their colored pieces showing at the end of the game, turning over as many of their opponent's pieces as possible. The dark player makes the first move from the starting position, alternating with the light player. Each player has to place a piece on the board such that there exists at least one straight (horizontal, vertical, or diagonal) occupied line of opponent pieces between the new piece and another own piece. After placing the piece, the side turns over (flips, captures) all opponent pieces lying on any straight lines between the new piece and any anchoring own pieces.
|}
=Othello Programming=
Writing an Othello program <ref>[http://radagast.se/othello/howto.html Writing an Othello program] by [[Gunnar Andersson]]</ref> is an appealing and interesting challenge. Beside the dedicated Othello programmers [[Gunnar Andersson]], [[Michael Buro]], [[Mark Brockington]], [[Paul Hsieh]], and [[Andrea Zinno]], to name a few, many chess programmers were and are busy in this domain as well. Already in 1981 [[Dan Spracklen|Dan]] and [[Kathe Spracklen]] wrote a commercial Reversi program, marketed as ''Reversi Sensory Challenger'' <ref>[http://www.beppi.it/public/OthelloMuseum/pages/boards-museum/electronic-boards/reversi-sensory-challenger.php The Othello Museum - Reversi Sensory Challenger]</ref> by [[Fidelity Electronics]]. [[Larry Atkin]] and [[Peter W. Frey]] wrote the commercial program [[Peter W. Frey#Odin|Odin]] in the early 80s as well <ref>[http://www.othello.dk/book/index.php/Odin Odin - The Othello Wiki Book Project]</ref>. Other programmers to mention are [[Aart Bik]], [[Bruno Bras]], [[Dennis Breuker]], [[Joost Buijs]], [[Jonathan Kreuzer]], [[Fabien Letouzey]], [[Steve Maughan]], and [[Jean-Christophe Weill]].
==Search==
In Othello, similar to chess, [[Search|search]] implementations are dominated by [[Alpha-Beta|alpha-beta]] and variants so far. An alternative approach called MGSS and MGSS* was proposed by [[Stuart Russell]] and [[Eric Wefald]] in 1988 <ref>[[Stuart Russell]], [[Eric Wefald]] ('''1988'''). ''Decision-Theoretic Search Control: General Theory and an Application to Game-Playing.'' Computer Science Division Technical Report 88/435, University of California, Berkeley, CA.</ref> and 1989 <ref>[[Stuart Russell]], [[Eric Wefald]] ('''1989'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1623807 On optimal game-tree search using rational metareasoning].'' In Proceedings of the Eleventh International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Detroit, MI: Morgan Kaufmann, [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.79.9229&rep=rep1&type=pdf pdf]</ref> respectively. In Othello, there is no concept of [[Quiescence Search#StandPat|standing pat]] or [[Quiescence Search|quiescence]], and [[Null Move Pruning|null move pruning]] does not work.
* [[Jean-Christophe Weill]] elaborated on [[NegaC*]] <ref>[[Jean-Christophe Weill]] ('''1991'''). ''Experiments With the NegaC* Search - An Alternative for Othello Endgame Search.'' Heuristic Programming in Artificial Intelligence 2: the second computer olympiad (eds. [[David Levy]] and [[Don Beal]]), pp. 174-188. Ellis Horwood, Chichester. ISBN 0-13-382615-5, [http://www.recherche.enac.fr/%7Eweill/publications/negac.ps.gz zipped ps] and [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.39.3189&rep=rep1&type=pdf pdf] from [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.39.3189 CiteSeerX]</ref> and for [[Parallel Search|parallel search]] on [[ABDADA]] <ref>[[Jean-Christophe Weill]] ('''1996'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=228345 The ABDADA Distributed Minimax Search Algorithm]''. Proceedings of the 1996 ACM Computer Science Conference, pp. 131-138. ACM, New York, N.Y, reprinted [[ICGA Journal#19_1|ICCA Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1]], [http://www.recherche.enac.fr/%7Eweill/publications/acm.ps.gz zipped ps]</ref>.
* [[Michael Buro]] successfully implemented his [[ProbCut]] and [[ProbCut#MPC|Multi-ProbCut]] (MPC) as [[Selectivity|selective]] extension <ref>[[Michael Buro]] ('''1995'''). ''ProbCut: An Effective Selective Extension of the Alpha-Beta Algorithm.'' [[ICGA Journal#18_2|ICCA Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2]], pp. 71-76, [http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/%7Emburo/ps/probcut.pdf pdf]</ref> inside his successful Othello program ''Logistello'' <ref>[http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/%7Emburo/log.html Logistello's Homepage]</ref>, already described in his Ph.D. thesis <ref>[[Michael Buro]] ('''1994'''). ''Techniken für die Bewertung von Spielsituationen anhand von Beispielen.'' Ph.D. Thesis. [[University of Paderborn]], Paderborn, Germany. [http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/%7Emburo/ps/mics_dis.pdf pdf] (German)</ref>.
* The ''Asycnhronous Parallel Hierarchical Iterative Deepening'' algorithm, [[APHID]] by [[Mark Brockington]] was applied to Othello as well <ref>[[Mark Brockington]], [[Jonathan Schaeffer]] ('''1996'''). ''The APHID Parallel αβ Search Algorithm''. Technical Report 96-07, Department of Computing Science, [[University of Alberta]], Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. as [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.23.8215&rep=rep1&type=pdf pdf] from [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.23.8215 CiteSeerX]</ref> <ref>[[Mark Brockington]], [[Jonathan Schaeffer]] ('''1997'''). ''APHID Game-Tree Search''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 8]]</ref> <ref>[http://webdocs.cs.ualberta.ca/~games/aphid/index.html APHID Parallel Game-Tree Search Library]</ref> <ref>[[Mark Brockington]] ('''1998'''). ''Asynchronous Parallel Game-Tree Search''. Ph.D. Thesis, [[University of Alberta]], [http://games.cs.ualberta.ca/articles/mgb_thesis.ps.gz zipped postscript]</ref>.
* In 2011, [[Jean Méhat]] and [[Tristan Cazenave]] implemented [[Monte-Carlo Tree Search]] in parallel [[General Game Playing]], also covering Othello with promising results <ref>[[Jean Méhat]], [[Tristan Cazenave]] ('''2011'''). ''A Parallel General Game Player''. [http://www.kuenstliche-intelligenz.de/ KI Journal], Vol. 25, No. 1, [http://www.lamsade.dauphine.fr/~cazenave/papers/rootparallelggp.pdf pdf]</ref>.
==Evaluation==
Despite [[Material|material]] as decisive feature in Othello, it is also a volatile one and difficult to [[Evaluation|evaluate]]. Othello programmers often use [[Piece-Square Tables|piece-square tables]], [[Mobility|mobility]] and take [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Othello#Evaluation_Techniques various other features], [[Pattern|pattern]], and heuristics into account, considering [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversi#Strategic_elements strategic elements] like the importance of the edge squares. [[Paul S. Rosenbloom|Paul Rosenbloom's]] program [[Paul S. Rosenbloom#Iago|Iago]] of the early 80s used edge stability, internal stability <ref>[https://groups.google.com/d/msg/comp.ai.games/WZeBxfkzfYY/VaCfy1ds2ZYJ stability in a Othello game] by Daniel, [[Compuer Chess Forums|comp.ai.games]], October 10, 2002</ref>, current [[Mobility|mobility]] and potential mobility, weighted by coefficients as suggested by [[Hans Berliner]] <ref>[[Hans Berliner]] ('''1980'''). ''[http://www.bkgm.com/articles/Berliner/BackgammonProgramBeatsWorldChamp/ Backgammon Computer Program Beats World Champion]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_%28journal%29 Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 14, hosted by [http://www.bkgm.com/ Backgammon Galore], reprinted in [[David Levy]] (ed.) ('''1988'''). ''[http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4613-8716-9 Computer Games I]''</ref> <ref> [[Paul S. Rosenbloom]] ('''1981'''). ''A world-championship-level Othello program''. Technical report, [[Carnegie Mellon University]], [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4033/a5b1d46beec14600427e391ce600159c0f61.pdf pdf]</ref>. In conjunction with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability probability] based [[Pruning|pruning]] aka [[ProbCut]], [[Michael Buro]] elaborately addresses the evaluation function <ref>[[Michael Buro]] ('''1997'''). ''An Evaluation Function for Othello Based on Statistics.'' NEC Research Institute. Technical Report #31.</ref> <ref>[[Michael Buro]] ('''1997'''). ''Experiments with Multi-ProbCut and a New High-quality Evaluation Function for Othello.'' Technical Report No. 96, NEC Research Institute, Princeton, N.J. [http://skatgame.net/mburo/ps/improve.pdf pdf]</ref> <ref>[[Michael Buro]] ('''2000'''). ''Experiments with Multi-ProbCut and a new High-Quality Evaluation Function for Othello.'' Games in AI Research (eds. [[Jaap van den Herik]] and [[Hiroyuki Iida]]), pp. 77-96. [[Maastricht University|Universiteit Maastricht]], Maastricht, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-621-6416-1.</ref>. Further, [[Yasuhiro Osaki]], [[Kazutomo Shibahara]], [[Yasuhiro Tajima]], and [[Yoshiyuki Kotani]] applied [[Temporal Difference Learning]] to an Othello evaluation function <ref>[[Yasuhiro Osaki]], [[Kazutomo Shibahara]], [[Yasuhiro Tajima]], [[Yoshiyuki Kotani]] ('''2008'''). ''An Othello Evaluation Function Based on Temporal Difference Learning using Probability of Winning''. [http://www.csse.uwa.edu.au/cig08/Proceedings/toc.html CIG'08], [http://www.csse.uwa.edu.au/cig08/Proceedings/papers/8010.pdf pdf]</ref>.
==Bitboards==
Othello is very [[Bitboards|bitboard]] friendly. It seems that [[Dumb7Fill]] or [[Kogge-Stone Algorithm|Kogge-Stone]] [[Fill Algorithms]] are suitable to [[Move Generation|generate moves]]. Generator sets are the own pieces, propagator sets the opponent ones. The fill result, after a final [[General Setwise Operations#OneStepOnly|direction shift]] similar as fill based [[Sliding Piece Attacks|sliding piece attacks]] in chess, needs an [[General Setwise Operations#Intersection|intersection]] with [[Occupancy|empty squares]] to determine the target squares per [[Direction|direction]]. Beside the target square coordinate, [[Encoding Moves|move encoding]] may incorporate a direction set (one [[Byte]] with one distinct bit per direction) for all eight directions with anchor squares, and possibly the number of pieces to flip, may be even as set for more reliable [[Move Ordering|move ordering]] and faster [[Make Move|make move]]. An [[MMX]] implementation of Dumb7Fill in [[Assembly#InlineAssembly|inline assembly]] by [[Gunnar Andersson]] <ref>[http://radagast.se/othello/bitmob.c bitboard mobility] Copyright (c) 2003, [[Gunnar Andersson]]</ref> demonstrates determining mobility, while the implementation by co-author [[Toshihiko Okuhara]] in their program Zebra <ref>[http://radagast.se/othello/zebra.html Zebra] by [[Gunnar Andersson]]</ref> looks [[Parallel Prefix Algorithms|parallel prefixed]] <ref>bitbmob.c in [http://radagast.se/othello/zebra.tar.gz zebra.tar.gz]</ref>.
=Solving Othello=
Othello on 4×4 <ref>[http://ailab.awardspace.com/othello4x4.html AI Lab - Othello 4x4]</ref> and 6×6 board <ref>[[Shi-Jim Yen]], [[Tsan-Cheng Su]], [[Jr-Chang Chen]], [[Shun-Chin Hsu]] ('''2014'''). ''Solving 6x6 Othello on Volunteer Computing System''. [[Conferences#GPW|GPW-2014]]</ref> are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Othello#Solving_Othello strongly solved] and proved as a second player (white) to win. For 8x8 boards, [[Victor Allis]] estimated the number of legal positions in Othello is at most 10<span style="vertical-align: super; font-size: 80%;">28</span>, and it has a game-tree complexity of approximately 10<span style="vertical-align: super; font-size: 80%;">58</span> <ref>[[Victor Allis]] ('''1994'''). ''Searching for Solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence''. Ph.D. Thesis, [[Maastricht University|University of Limburg]], [http://fragrieu.free.fr/SearchingForSolutions.pdf pdf]</ref>. While still mathematically unsolved, there is strong suspicion that perfect play on both sides results in a draw <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversi#Computer_opponents_and_research Computer opponents and research from Wikipedia]</ref> <ref>[http://abulmo.perso.neuf.fr/games/book-2008.htm 2004 Opening Book Skeleton]</ref>.
=[[Computer Olympiad|Computer Olympiads]]=
* [[1st Computer Olympiad#Othello|1st Computer Olympiad, London 1989]]
* [[2nd Computer Olympiad#Othello|2nd Computer Olympiad, London 1990]]
* [[3rd Computer Olympiad#Othello|3rd Computer Olympiad, Maastricht 1991]]
* [[4th Computer Olympiad#Othello|4th Computer Olympiad, London 1992]]
* [[20th Computer Olympiad#Othello|20th Computer Olympiad, Leiden 2017]]
=Photos=
[[FILE:Olympiad2017Othello10x10.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|link=http://icga.org/?page_id=2137]]
[[20th Computer Olympiad#Othello|20th Computer Olympiad, Leiden 2017]], Othello 10x10 winners, [[Shun-Chin Hsu]] (Mothello10, Bronze),<br/>[[Fabien Letouzey]] with [[WCCC 2005]] shirt (Decapus, Gold) and [[Andrew Lin]] (Deep Nikita, Silver) <ref>[http://icga.org/?page_id=2137 Events 2017: Dinner - Photo 24 of 25] by [[Jan Krabbenbos]]</ref>
=See also=
* [[ABDADA]]
* [[APHID]]
* [[Monte-Carlo Tree Search]]
* [[ProbCut]]
=Publications=
==1979==
* [[Peter B. Maggs]] ('''1979'''). ''[https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1979-11/1979_11_BYTE_04-11_Fun_and_Games#page/n67/mode/2up Programming Strategies in the Game of Reversi]''. [[Byte Magazine#BYTE411|BYTE, Vol. 4, No. 11]], pp. 66-79
==1980 ...==
* [[Ed Wright]] ('''1980'''). ''[http://www.atariarchives.org/bcc3/showpage.php?page=258 Othello]''. [[Creative Computing#Best3|The Best of Creative Computing Volume 3]]
* Editor ('''1980'''). ''Background and Origins of Othello''. [[Personal Computing#4_7|Personal Computing, Vol. 4, No. 7]], pp. 87
* [[Peter W. Frey]] ('''1980'''). ''Machine Othello''. [[Personal Computing#4_7|Personal Computing, Vol. 4, No. 7]], pp. 89
* [[Paul S. Rosenbloom]] ('''1981'''). ''A world-championship-level Othello program''. Technical report, [[Carnegie Mellon University]], [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4033/a5b1d46beec14600427e391ce600159c0f61.pdf pdf]
* [[Donald H. Mitchell]] ('''1984'''). ''Using Features to Evaluate Positions in Experts' and Novices' Othello Games''. Masters thesis, Department of Psychology, [[Northwestern University]], Evanston, IL
==1985 ...==
* [[Kai-Fu Lee]], [[Sanjoy Mahajan]] ('''1986'''). ''[http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2593&context=compsci BILL: a table-based, knowledge-intensive othello program]''. Technial Report CMU-CS-86-141, [[Carnegie Mellon University]]
* [[Kai-Fu Lee]] ('''1986'''). ''[http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2622&context=compsci A pattern classification approach to evaluation function learning]''. Technial Report CMU-CS-86-173, [[Carnegie Mellon University]]
* [[Kai-Fu Lee]], [[Sanjoy Mahajan]] ('''1988'''). ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0004370288900768 A Pattern Classification Approach to Evaluation Function Learning]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_%28journal%29 Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 36, No. 1
* [[Stuart Russell]], [[Eric Wefald]] ('''1988'''). ''Decision-Theoretic Search Control: General Theory and an Application to Game-Playing.'' Computer Science Division Technical Report 88/435, University of California, Berkeley, CA.
* [[Mathematician#KADeJong|Kenneth A. De Jong]], [[Mathematician#ACSchultz|Alan C. Schultz]] ('''1988'''). ''Using Experience-Based Learning in Game Playing''. Proceedings of the Fifth International Machine Learning Conference, [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.52.5381 CiteSeerX] » [[Learning]]
* [[Stuart Russell]], [[Eric Wefald]] ('''1989'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1623807 On optimal game-tree search using rational metareasoning].'' In Proceedings of the Eleventh International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Detroit, MI: Morgan Kaufmann, [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.79.9229&rep=rep1&type=pdf pdf]
* [[Clarence Hewlett]] ('''1989'''). ''Hardware Help on an Othello Endgame Analyzer''. [[1st Computer Olympiad#Workshop|Heuristic Programming in AI 1]]
* [[Anders Kierulf]] ('''1989'''). ''New Concepts in Computer Othello: Corner Value, Edge Advoidance, Access, and Parity''. [[1st Computer Olympiad#Workshop|Heuristic Programming in AI 1]]
* [[Greg M. Gupton]] ('''1989'''). ''Genetic Learning Algorithm Applied to the Game of Othello''. [[1st Computer Olympiad#Workshop|Heuristic Programming in AI 1]]
==1990 ...==
* [[Kai-Fu Lee]], [[Sanjoy Mahajan]] ('''1990'''). ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/000437029090068B The Development of a World Class Othello Program]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_%28journal%29 Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 43, No. 1
* [[Jean-Christophe Weill]] ('''1991'''). ''Experiments With the NegaC* Search - An Alternative for Othello Endgame Search.'' [[2nd Computer Olympiad#Workshop|Heuristic Programming in AI 2]]
* [[Richard Korf]] and [[Max Chickering]] ('''1994'''). ''[http://www.aaai.org/Library/AAAI/1994/aaai94-210.php Best-first minimax search: Othello results].'' Proceedings of the 13th National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-94), pp. 1365-1370. AAAI Press, Menlo Park, CA.
* [[Victor Allis]] ('''1994'''). ''Searching for Solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence''. Ph.D. Thesis, [[Maastricht University|University of Limburg]], [http://fragrieu.free.fr/SearchingForSolutions.pdf pdf]
* [[David E. Moriarty]], [[Risto Miikkulainen]] ('''1994'''). ''Evolving Neural Networks to focus Minimax Search''. [[AAAI|AAAI-94]], [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~ai-lab/pubs/moriarty.focus.pdf pdf]
==1995 ...==
* [[Anton Leouski]] ('''1995'''). ''Learning of Position Evaluation in the Game of Othello''. Master's Project, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts University of Massachusetts], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amherst,_Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts], [http://people.ict.usc.edu/~leuski/publications/papers/UM-CS-1995-023.pdf pdf]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''1995'''). ''[http://www.jair.org/papers/paper179.html Statistical Feature Combination for the Evaluation of Game Positions]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Artificial_Intelligence_Research JAIR], Vol. 3
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''1995'''). ''ProbCut: An Effective Selective Extension of the Alpha-Beta Algorithm.'' [[ICGA Journal#18_2|ICCA Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2]], pp. 71-76, [http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/%7Emburo/ps/probcut.pdf pdf]
* [[Jean-Marc Alliot]], [[Mathematician#NDurand|Nicolas Durand]] ('''1995'''). ''[https://hal-enac.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00937682 A Genetic Algorithm to Improve an Othello Program]''. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/3-540-61108-8 Artificial Evolution], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_Notes_in_Computer_Science LNCS] 1063, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer]
* [[David Currie]] ('''1996'''). ''Othello Game Player''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Oxford St. John's College], [http://david.currie.name/wp-content/othello.pdf pdf]
* [[Jean-Christophe Weill]] ('''1996'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=228345 The ABDADA Distributed Minimax Search Algorithm]''. Proceedings of the 1996 ACM Computer Science Conference, pp. 131-138. ACM, New York, N.Y, reprinted [[ICGA Journal#19_1|ICCA Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1]], [http://www.recherche.enac.fr/%7Eweill/publications/acm.ps.gz zipped ps]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''1997'''). ''An Evaluation Function for Othello Based on Statistics.'' NEC Research Institute. Technical Report #31.
* [[Mark Brockington]] ('''1997'''). ''KEYANO Unplugged - The Construction of an Othello Program''. Technical Report TR-97-05, Department of Computing Science, [[University of Alberta]], [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.49.2672 CiteSeerX ]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''1997'''). ''Experiments with Multi-ProbCut and a New High-quality Evaluation Function for Othello.'' Technical Report No. 96, NEC Research Institute, Princeton, N.J. [http://skatgame.net/mburo/ps/improve.pdf pdf]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''1997'''). ''The Othello match of the year: Takeshi Murakami vs Logistello''. [[ICGA Journal#20_3|ICCA Journal, Vol 20, No. 3]], [http://skatgame.net/mburo/ps/match-report.ps.gz zipped ps]
* [[Craig S. Bruce]] ('''1998'''). ''[http://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/300 Performance Optimization for Distributed-Shared-Data Systems]''. Ph.D. thesis, [[University of Waterloo]], 6.6. Game-Tree Searching: Othello, pp. 188
* [[Ayumu Nagai]], [[Hiroshi Imai]] ('''1999'''). ''Application of df-pn+ to Othello endgames''. [[Conferences#GPW|5th Game Programming Workshop]] » [[Proof-Number Search]]
==2000 ...==
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''2000'''). ''Experiments with Multi-ProbCut and a new High-Quality Evaluation Function for Othello.'' Games in AI Research (eds. [[Jaap van den Herik]] and [[Hiroyuki Iida]]), pp. 77-96. [[Maastricht University|Universiteit Maastricht]], Maastricht, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-621-6416-1.
* [[Makoto Sakuta]], [[Hiroyuki Iida]] ('''2001'''). ''The Performance of PN*, PDS, and PN Search on 6x6 Othello and Tsume-Shogi''. [[Advances in Computer Games 9]] » [[Proof-Number Search]]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''2002'''). ''Report on the IWEC-2002 Man-Machine Othello Match''. [[ICGA Journal#25_2|ICGA Journal, Vol. 25, No. 2]], [https://skatgame.net/mburo/ps/iwec-match.pdf pdf]
* [[Konstantinos Tournavitis]] ('''2002'''). ''[http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-40031-8_2 MOUSE(μ): A Self-teaching Algorithm that Achieved Master-Strength at Othello]''. [[CG 2002]]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''2003'''). ''The Evolution of Strong Othello Programs''. [[IFIP]], Vol. 112, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer]
* C.K. Wong, K.K. Lo and P.H.W. Leong ('''2004'''). ''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1393254 An FPGA-based Othello Endgame Solver]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_University_of_Hong_Kong The Chinese University of Hong Kong], [http://www.cse.cuhk.edu.hk/~phwl/mt/public/archives/papers/othello_fpt04.pdf pdf]
==2005 ...==
* [[Simon Lucas]], [[Thomas Philip Runarsson]] ('''2006'''). ''[http://scholar.google.is/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=4eWdc_sAAAAJ&citation_for_view=4eWdc_sAAAAJ:qjMakFHDy7sC Temporal Difference Learning versus Co-Evolution for Acquiring Othello Position Evaluation]''. [[IEEE#CIG|IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games]]
* [[Simon Lucas]] ('''2007'''). ''[http://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=de&user=Jz8DDVAAAAAJ&cstart=20&citation_for_view=Jz8DDVAAAAAJ:QIV2ME_5wuYC Learning to play Othello with N-tuple systems]''. [https://www.chatbots.org/journal/australian_journal_of_intelligent_information_processing_systems/ Australian Journal of Intelligent Information Processing Systems], Special Issue on Game Technology, Vol. 9, No. 4
* [[Edward P. Manning]] ('''2007'''). ''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=4219046 Temporal Difference Learning of an Othello Evaluation Function for a Small Neural Network with Shared Weights]''. [[IEEE#CIG|IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games]]
* [[Pim Nijssen]] ('''2007'''). ''Playing Othello Using Monte Carlo''. Bachelor's Thesis, [[Maastricht University]], [http://www.personeel.unimaas.nl/pim.nijssen/pub/bsc.pdf pdf]
* [[Yasuhiro Osaki]], [[Kazutomo Shibahara]], [[Yasuhiro Tajima]], [[Yoshiyuki Kotani]] ('''2008'''). ''An Othello Evaluation Function Based on Temporal Difference Learning using Probability of Winning''. [http://www.csse.uwa.edu.au/cig08/Proceedings/toc.html CIG'08], [http://www.csse.uwa.edu.au/cig08/Proceedings/papers/8010.pdf pdf]
* [[Toru Ueda]], [[Tsuyoshi Hashimoto]], [[Junichi Hashimoto]], [[Hiroyuki Iida]] ('''2008'''). ''[http://www.springerlink.com/content/v47864x734410148/ Weak Proof-Number Search]''. [[CG 2008]] » [[Proof-Number Search]]
* [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Krzysztof Krawiec]] ('''2009'''). ''Coevolutionary Temporal Difference Learning for Othello''. [[IEEE#CIG|IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games]], [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/wjaskowski/pub/papers/szubert09coevolutionary.pdf pdf]
==2010 ...==
* [[Edward P. Manning]] ('''2010'''). ''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=5409565 Using Resource-Limited Nash Memory to Improve an Othello Evaluation Function]''. [[IEEE#TOCIAIGAMES|IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games]], Vol. 2, No. 1
* [[Edward P. Manning]] ('''2010'''). ''[http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1830667 Coevolution in a Large Search Space using Resource-limited Nash Memory]''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/gecco/gecco2010.html#Manning10 GECCO '10]
'''2011'''
* [[Jean Méhat]], [[Tristan Cazenave]] ('''2011'''). ''A Parallel General Game Player''. [http://www.kuenstliche-intelligenz.de/ KI Journal], Vol. 25, No. 1, [http://www.lamsade.dauphine.fr/~cazenave/papers/rootparallelggp.pdf pdf]
* [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Krzysztof Krawiec]] ('''2011'''). ''Learning Board Evaluation Function for Othello by Hybridizing Coevolution with Temporal Difference Learning''. [http://control.ibspan.waw.pl:3000/mainpage Control and Cybernetics], Vol. 40, No. 3, [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/wjaskowski/pub/papers/szubert2011learning.pdf pdf]
* [[Krzysztof Krawiec]], [[Marcin Szubert]] ('''2011'''). ''Learning N-Tuple Networks for Othello by Coevolutionary Gradient Search''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/gecco/gecco2011.html#KrawiecS11 GECCO 2011], [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/mszubert/pub/krawiec2011gecco.pdf pdf]
* [[Damjan Strnad]], [[Nikola Guid]] ('''2011'''). ''[http://cit.fer.hr/index.php/CIT/article/view/2029 Parallel Alpha-Beta Algorithm on the GPU]''. [http://cit.fer.hr/index.php/CIT CIT. Journal of Computing and Information Technology], Vol. 19, No. 4 » [[GPU]], [[Parallel Search]]
'''2012'''
* [[Paweł Liskowski]] ('''2012'''). ''Co-Evolution versus Evolution with Random Sampling for Acquiring Othello Position Evaluation''. master's thesis, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_University_of_Technology Poznań University of Technology], supervisor [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/wjaskowski/pub/var/pliskowski_msc.pdf pdf]
* [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/pers/hd/d/Dries:Sjoerd_van_den Sjoerd van den Dries], [[Marco Wiering]] ('''2012'''). ''[https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=xVas0I8AAAAJ&cstart=40&citation_for_view=xVas0I8AAAAJ:P5F9QuxV20EC Neural-fitted TD-leaf learning for playing Othello with structured neural networks]''. [[IEEE#NN|IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems]], Vol. 23, No. 11
'''2013'''
* [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/pers/hd/r/Ree:M=_van_der Michiel van der Ree], [[Marco Wiering]] ('''2013'''). ''[https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=xVas0I8AAAAJ&cstart=60&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=xVas0I8AAAAJ:K3LRdlH-MEoC Reinforcement Learning in the Game of Othello: Learning Against a Fixed Opponent and Learning from Self-Play]''. [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/adprl/adprl2013.html#ReeW13 ADPRL 2013]
* [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Krzysztof Krawiec]] ('''2013'''). ''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=6504736 On Scalability, Generalization, and Hybridization of Coevolutionary Learning: a Case Study for Othello]''. [[IEEE#TOCIAIGAMES|IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games]], Vol. 5, No. 3
* [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Paweł Liskowski]], [[Krzysztof Krawiec]] ('''2013'''). ''Shaping Fitness Function for Evolutionary Learning of Game Strategies''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/gecco/gecco2013.html#SzubertJLK13 GECCO 2013], [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/wjaskowski/pub/papers/szubert2013shaping.pdf pdf]
* [[Paweł Liskowski]] ('''2013'''). ''[http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2482752 Quantitative Analysis of the Hall of Fame Coevolutionary Archives]''. [http://www.sigevo.org/gecco-2013/ GECCO '13] Companion Proceedings
* [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Paweł Liskowski]], [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Krzysztof Krawiec]] ('''2013'''). ''Improving Coevolution by Random Sampling''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/gecco/gecco2013.html#JaskowskiLSK13 GECCO 2013], [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/mszubert/pub/jaskowski2013gecco.pdf pdf]
'''2014'''
* [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Paweł Liskowski]] ('''2014'''). ''Multi-Criteria Comparison of Coevolution and Temporal Difference Learning on Othello''. [http://www.evostar.org/2014/ EvoApplications 2014], [http://www.springer.com/computer/theoretical+computer+science/book/978-3-662-45522-7 Springer, volume 8602]
* [[Shi-Jim Yen]], [[Tsan-Cheng Su]], [[Jr-Chang Chen]], [[Shun-Chin Hsu]] ('''2014'''). ''Solving 6x6 Othello on Volunteer Computing System''. [[Conferences#GPW|GPW-2014]]
* [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]] ('''2014'''). ''Systematic n-Tuple Networks for Othello Position Evaluation''. [[ICGA Journal#37_2|ICGA Journal, Vol. 37, No. 2]]
==2015 ...==
* [[Mohd Nor Akmal Khalid]], [[E. Mei Ang]], [[Umi Kalsom Yusof]], [[Hiroyuki Iida]], [[Taichi Ishitobi]] ('''2015'''). ''[http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-319-27947-3_6 Identifying Critical Positions Based on Conspiracy Numbers]''. [http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-27947-3 Agents and Artificial Intelligence], [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/icaart/icaart2015s.html#KhalidAYII15 ICAART 2015 - Revised Selected Papers]
* [[Shantanu Thakoor]], [[Surag Nair]], [[Megha Jhunjhunwala]] ('''2017'''). ''Learning to Play Othello Without Human Knowledge''. [[Stanford University]], [https://github.com/suragnair/alpha-zero-general/blob/master/pretrained_models/writeup.pdf pdf] » [[AlphaZero]], [[Monte-Carlo Tree Search|MCTS]], [[Deep Learning]] <ref>[https://github.com/suragnair/alpha-zero-general GitHub - suragnair/alpha-zero-general: A clean and simple implementation of a self-play learning algorithm based on AlphaGo Zero (any game, any framework!)]</ref>
=Forum Posts=
* [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.chess.computer/browse_frm/thread/bcb03df7630d6274 Bitboards: speeding up FirstOne] by Laurent Desnogues, [[Computer Chess Forums|rgcc]], April 10, 1996 » [[BitScan]]
* [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.chess.computer/browse_frm/thread/929a1b0a271d7080 Othello Match & Call for Papers] by [[Ingo Althöfer]], [[Computer Chess Forums|rgcc]], March 24, 1997
* [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.chess.computer/browse_frm/thread/8ab4f917234eb016 Enhanced Transposition Table Cutoffs] by [[Andrea Zinno]], [[Computer Chess Forums|rgcc]], July 30, 1997 » [[Enhanced Transposition Cutoff]]
* [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.chess.computer/browse_frm/thread/79d0882097714876 Othello man machine match] by [[Ingo Althöfer]], [[Computer Chess Forums|rgcc]], August 6, 1997
* [http://groups.google.com/group/comp.ai.games/browse_frm/thread/a38f4f81e0a8839d Othello endgame search question] by Daniel Lidström, [http://groups.google.com/group/comp.ai.games/topics comp.ai.games], December 13, 2001
* [https://groups.google.com/d/msg/comp.ai.games/WZeBxfkzfYY/VaCfy1ds2ZYJ stability in a Othello game] by Daniel, [[Compuer Chess Forums|comp.ai.games]], October 10, 2002
* [http://www.talkchess.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=30723 Performance: linux vs Windows vs Mac OS X] by [[Richard Delorme]], [[CCC]], November 21, 2009 » [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edax_(computing) Edax]
* [http://www.talkchess.com/forum/viewtopic.php?start=0&t=37634 WinBoard, exotic version] by [[Harm Geert Muller]], [[CCC]], January 15, 2011 » [[WinBoard]]
=External Links=
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversi Reversi from Wikipedia]
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Othello Computer Othello from Wikipedia]
* [http://www.othello.dk/book/index.php/Main_Page The Othello Wiki Book Project]
* [https://www.game-ai-forum.org/icga-tournaments/game.php?id=22 Othello (ICGA Tournaments)]
* [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/wjaskowski/othello-league-players Othello Players] by [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]]
* [http://radagast.se/othello/howto.html Writing an Othello program] by [[Gunnar Andersson]]
* [http://forwardcoding.com/projects/othello.html Othello] by [[Gary Linscott]]
* [http://www.aartbik.com/MISC/reversi.html Perft for Reversi/Othello] by [[Aart Bik]] » [[Perft]] <ref>[http://www.othello.dk/book/index.php/Aart_Bik Aart Bik - The Othello Wiki Book Project]</ref>
* [http://www.andreazinno.it/ Andrea Zinno's Home Page] - Entirely dedicated to the Othello game, by [[Andrea Zinno]]
* [http://members.chello.at/theodor.lauppert/games/othello.htm Othello] from [http://members.chello.at/theodor.lauppert/ Theodor Lauppert's] [http://members.chello.at/theodor.lauppert/games/ Game Gallery]
* [http://gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/othello/ Othello (Reversi)] from [http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/index.htm Elliott Avedon Virtual Museum of Games], [[University of Waterloo]]
* [http://www.beppi.it/public/OthelloMuseum/ The Othello Museum - Home]
* [http://www.pressmangames.com/instructions/instruct_othello.html Pressman Toy Instructions for Othello]
* [http://othello.nu/wofforum/ World Othello Federation]
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othello_%28disambiguation%29 Othello (disambiguation) from Wikipedia]
=References=
<references />
'''[[Games|Up one Level]]'''
[[FILE:Othello (Reversi) board.jpg|border|right|thumb|Reversi/Othello <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversi Reversi from Wikipedia]</ref> ]]
'''Othello''',
or differing in not having a defined starting position, '''Reversi''', is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-player_game two-player] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_%28game_theory%29 zero-sum] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_information perfect information] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_strategy abstract strategy] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_game board game], usually played on a board with 8 rows and 8 columns and a set of light and a dark turnable pieces for each side. The player's goal is to have a majority of their colored pieces showing at the end of the game, turning over as many of their opponent's pieces as possible. The dark player makes the first move from the starting position, alternating with the light player. Each player has to place a piece on the board such that there exists at least one straight (horizontal, vertical, or diagonal) occupied line of opponent pieces between the new piece and another own piece. After placing the piece, the side turns over (flips, captures) all opponent pieces lying on any straight lines between the new piece and any anchoring own pieces.
|}
=Othello Programming=
Writing an Othello program <ref>[http://radagast.se/othello/howto.html Writing an Othello program] by [[Gunnar Andersson]]</ref> is an appealing and interesting challenge. Beside the dedicated Othello programmers [[Gunnar Andersson]], [[Michael Buro]], [[Mark Brockington]], [[Paul Hsieh]], and [[Andrea Zinno]], to name a few, many chess programmers were and are busy in this domain as well. Already in 1981 [[Dan Spracklen|Dan]] and [[Kathe Spracklen]] wrote a commercial Reversi program, marketed as ''Reversi Sensory Challenger'' <ref>[http://www.beppi.it/public/OthelloMuseum/pages/boards-museum/electronic-boards/reversi-sensory-challenger.php The Othello Museum - Reversi Sensory Challenger]</ref> by [[Fidelity Electronics]]. [[Larry Atkin]] and [[Peter W. Frey]] wrote the commercial program [[Peter W. Frey#Odin|Odin]] in the early 80s as well <ref>[http://www.othello.dk/book/index.php/Odin Odin - The Othello Wiki Book Project]</ref>. Other programmers to mention are [[Aart Bik]], [[Bruno Bras]], [[Dennis Breuker]], [[Joost Buijs]], [[Jonathan Kreuzer]], [[Fabien Letouzey]], [[Steve Maughan]], and [[Jean-Christophe Weill]].
==Search==
In Othello, similar to chess, [[Search|search]] implementations are dominated by [[Alpha-Beta|alpha-beta]] and variants so far. An alternative approach called MGSS and MGSS* was proposed by [[Stuart Russell]] and [[Eric Wefald]] in 1988 <ref>[[Stuart Russell]], [[Eric Wefald]] ('''1988'''). ''Decision-Theoretic Search Control: General Theory and an Application to Game-Playing.'' Computer Science Division Technical Report 88/435, University of California, Berkeley, CA.</ref> and 1989 <ref>[[Stuart Russell]], [[Eric Wefald]] ('''1989'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1623807 On optimal game-tree search using rational metareasoning].'' In Proceedings of the Eleventh International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Detroit, MI: Morgan Kaufmann, [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.79.9229&rep=rep1&type=pdf pdf]</ref> respectively. In Othello, there is no concept of [[Quiescence Search#StandPat|standing pat]] or [[Quiescence Search|quiescence]], and [[Null Move Pruning|null move pruning]] does not work.
* [[Jean-Christophe Weill]] elaborated on [[NegaC*]] <ref>[[Jean-Christophe Weill]] ('''1991'''). ''Experiments With the NegaC* Search - An Alternative for Othello Endgame Search.'' Heuristic Programming in Artificial Intelligence 2: the second computer olympiad (eds. [[David Levy]] and [[Don Beal]]), pp. 174-188. Ellis Horwood, Chichester. ISBN 0-13-382615-5, [http://www.recherche.enac.fr/%7Eweill/publications/negac.ps.gz zipped ps] and [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.39.3189&rep=rep1&type=pdf pdf] from [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.39.3189 CiteSeerX]</ref> and for [[Parallel Search|parallel search]] on [[ABDADA]] <ref>[[Jean-Christophe Weill]] ('''1996'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=228345 The ABDADA Distributed Minimax Search Algorithm]''. Proceedings of the 1996 ACM Computer Science Conference, pp. 131-138. ACM, New York, N.Y, reprinted [[ICGA Journal#19_1|ICCA Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1]], [http://www.recherche.enac.fr/%7Eweill/publications/acm.ps.gz zipped ps]</ref>.
* [[Michael Buro]] successfully implemented his [[ProbCut]] and [[ProbCut#MPC|Multi-ProbCut]] (MPC) as [[Selectivity|selective]] extension <ref>[[Michael Buro]] ('''1995'''). ''ProbCut: An Effective Selective Extension of the Alpha-Beta Algorithm.'' [[ICGA Journal#18_2|ICCA Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2]], pp. 71-76, [http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/%7Emburo/ps/probcut.pdf pdf]</ref> inside his successful Othello program ''Logistello'' <ref>[http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/%7Emburo/log.html Logistello's Homepage]</ref>, already described in his Ph.D. thesis <ref>[[Michael Buro]] ('''1994'''). ''Techniken für die Bewertung von Spielsituationen anhand von Beispielen.'' Ph.D. Thesis. [[University of Paderborn]], Paderborn, Germany. [http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/%7Emburo/ps/mics_dis.pdf pdf] (German)</ref>.
* The ''Asycnhronous Parallel Hierarchical Iterative Deepening'' algorithm, [[APHID]] by [[Mark Brockington]] was applied to Othello as well <ref>[[Mark Brockington]], [[Jonathan Schaeffer]] ('''1996'''). ''The APHID Parallel αβ Search Algorithm''. Technical Report 96-07, Department of Computing Science, [[University of Alberta]], Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. as [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.23.8215&rep=rep1&type=pdf pdf] from [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.23.8215 CiteSeerX]</ref> <ref>[[Mark Brockington]], [[Jonathan Schaeffer]] ('''1997'''). ''APHID Game-Tree Search''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 8]]</ref> <ref>[http://webdocs.cs.ualberta.ca/~games/aphid/index.html APHID Parallel Game-Tree Search Library]</ref> <ref>[[Mark Brockington]] ('''1998'''). ''Asynchronous Parallel Game-Tree Search''. Ph.D. Thesis, [[University of Alberta]], [http://games.cs.ualberta.ca/articles/mgb_thesis.ps.gz zipped postscript]</ref>.
* In 2011, [[Jean Méhat]] and [[Tristan Cazenave]] implemented [[Monte-Carlo Tree Search]] in parallel [[General Game Playing]], also covering Othello with promising results <ref>[[Jean Méhat]], [[Tristan Cazenave]] ('''2011'''). ''A Parallel General Game Player''. [http://www.kuenstliche-intelligenz.de/ KI Journal], Vol. 25, No. 1, [http://www.lamsade.dauphine.fr/~cazenave/papers/rootparallelggp.pdf pdf]</ref>.
==Evaluation==
Despite [[Material|material]] as decisive feature in Othello, it is also a volatile one and difficult to [[Evaluation|evaluate]]. Othello programmers often use [[Piece-Square Tables|piece-square tables]], [[Mobility|mobility]] and take [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Othello#Evaluation_Techniques various other features], [[Pattern|pattern]], and heuristics into account, considering [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversi#Strategic_elements strategic elements] like the importance of the edge squares. [[Paul S. Rosenbloom|Paul Rosenbloom's]] program [[Paul S. Rosenbloom#Iago|Iago]] of the early 80s used edge stability, internal stability <ref>[https://groups.google.com/d/msg/comp.ai.games/WZeBxfkzfYY/VaCfy1ds2ZYJ stability in a Othello game] by Daniel, [[Compuer Chess Forums|comp.ai.games]], October 10, 2002</ref>, current [[Mobility|mobility]] and potential mobility, weighted by coefficients as suggested by [[Hans Berliner]] <ref>[[Hans Berliner]] ('''1980'''). ''[http://www.bkgm.com/articles/Berliner/BackgammonProgramBeatsWorldChamp/ Backgammon Computer Program Beats World Champion]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_%28journal%29 Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 14, hosted by [http://www.bkgm.com/ Backgammon Galore], reprinted in [[David Levy]] (ed.) ('''1988'''). ''[http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4613-8716-9 Computer Games I]''</ref> <ref> [[Paul S. Rosenbloom]] ('''1981'''). ''A world-championship-level Othello program''. Technical report, [[Carnegie Mellon University]], [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4033/a5b1d46beec14600427e391ce600159c0f61.pdf pdf]</ref>. In conjunction with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability probability] based [[Pruning|pruning]] aka [[ProbCut]], [[Michael Buro]] elaborately addresses the evaluation function <ref>[[Michael Buro]] ('''1997'''). ''An Evaluation Function for Othello Based on Statistics.'' NEC Research Institute. Technical Report #31.</ref> <ref>[[Michael Buro]] ('''1997'''). ''Experiments with Multi-ProbCut and a New High-quality Evaluation Function for Othello.'' Technical Report No. 96, NEC Research Institute, Princeton, N.J. [http://skatgame.net/mburo/ps/improve.pdf pdf]</ref> <ref>[[Michael Buro]] ('''2000'''). ''Experiments with Multi-ProbCut and a new High-Quality Evaluation Function for Othello.'' Games in AI Research (eds. [[Jaap van den Herik]] and [[Hiroyuki Iida]]), pp. 77-96. [[Maastricht University|Universiteit Maastricht]], Maastricht, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-621-6416-1.</ref>. Further, [[Yasuhiro Osaki]], [[Kazutomo Shibahara]], [[Yasuhiro Tajima]], and [[Yoshiyuki Kotani]] applied [[Temporal Difference Learning]] to an Othello evaluation function <ref>[[Yasuhiro Osaki]], [[Kazutomo Shibahara]], [[Yasuhiro Tajima]], [[Yoshiyuki Kotani]] ('''2008'''). ''An Othello Evaluation Function Based on Temporal Difference Learning using Probability of Winning''. [http://www.csse.uwa.edu.au/cig08/Proceedings/toc.html CIG'08], [http://www.csse.uwa.edu.au/cig08/Proceedings/papers/8010.pdf pdf]</ref>.
==Bitboards==
Othello is very [[Bitboards|bitboard]] friendly. It seems that [[Dumb7Fill]] or [[Kogge-Stone Algorithm|Kogge-Stone]] [[Fill Algorithms]] are suitable to [[Move Generation|generate moves]]. Generator sets are the own pieces, propagator sets the opponent ones. The fill result, after a final [[General Setwise Operations#OneStepOnly|direction shift]] similar as fill based [[Sliding Piece Attacks|sliding piece attacks]] in chess, needs an [[General Setwise Operations#Intersection|intersection]] with [[Occupancy|empty squares]] to determine the target squares per [[Direction|direction]]. Beside the target square coordinate, [[Encoding Moves|move encoding]] may incorporate a direction set (one [[Byte]] with one distinct bit per direction) for all eight directions with anchor squares, and possibly the number of pieces to flip, may be even as set for more reliable [[Move Ordering|move ordering]] and faster [[Make Move|make move]]. An [[MMX]] implementation of Dumb7Fill in [[Assembly#InlineAssembly|inline assembly]] by [[Gunnar Andersson]] <ref>[http://radagast.se/othello/bitmob.c bitboard mobility] Copyright (c) 2003, [[Gunnar Andersson]]</ref> demonstrates determining mobility, while the implementation by co-author [[Toshihiko Okuhara]] in their program Zebra <ref>[http://radagast.se/othello/zebra.html Zebra] by [[Gunnar Andersson]]</ref> looks [[Parallel Prefix Algorithms|parallel prefixed]] <ref>bitbmob.c in [http://radagast.se/othello/zebra.tar.gz zebra.tar.gz]</ref>.
=Solving Othello=
Othello on 4×4 <ref>[http://ailab.awardspace.com/othello4x4.html AI Lab - Othello 4x4]</ref> and 6×6 board <ref>[[Shi-Jim Yen]], [[Tsan-Cheng Su]], [[Jr-Chang Chen]], [[Shun-Chin Hsu]] ('''2014'''). ''Solving 6x6 Othello on Volunteer Computing System''. [[Conferences#GPW|GPW-2014]]</ref> are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Othello#Solving_Othello strongly solved] and proved as a second player (white) to win. For 8x8 boards, [[Victor Allis]] estimated the number of legal positions in Othello is at most 10<span style="vertical-align: super; font-size: 80%;">28</span>, and it has a game-tree complexity of approximately 10<span style="vertical-align: super; font-size: 80%;">58</span> <ref>[[Victor Allis]] ('''1994'''). ''Searching for Solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence''. Ph.D. Thesis, [[Maastricht University|University of Limburg]], [http://fragrieu.free.fr/SearchingForSolutions.pdf pdf]</ref>. While still mathematically unsolved, there is strong suspicion that perfect play on both sides results in a draw <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversi#Computer_opponents_and_research Computer opponents and research from Wikipedia]</ref> <ref>[http://abulmo.perso.neuf.fr/games/book-2008.htm 2004 Opening Book Skeleton]</ref>.
=[[Computer Olympiad|Computer Olympiads]]=
* [[1st Computer Olympiad#Othello|1st Computer Olympiad, London 1989]]
* [[2nd Computer Olympiad#Othello|2nd Computer Olympiad, London 1990]]
* [[3rd Computer Olympiad#Othello|3rd Computer Olympiad, Maastricht 1991]]
* [[4th Computer Olympiad#Othello|4th Computer Olympiad, London 1992]]
* [[20th Computer Olympiad#Othello|20th Computer Olympiad, Leiden 2017]]
=Photos=
[[FILE:Olympiad2017Othello10x10.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|link=http://icga.org/?page_id=2137]]
[[20th Computer Olympiad#Othello|20th Computer Olympiad, Leiden 2017]], Othello 10x10 winners, [[Shun-Chin Hsu]] (Mothello10, Bronze),<br/>[[Fabien Letouzey]] with [[WCCC 2005]] shirt (Decapus, Gold) and [[Andrew Lin]] (Deep Nikita, Silver) <ref>[http://icga.org/?page_id=2137 Events 2017: Dinner - Photo 24 of 25] by [[Jan Krabbenbos]]</ref>
=See also=
* [[ABDADA]]
* [[APHID]]
* [[Monte-Carlo Tree Search]]
* [[ProbCut]]
=Publications=
==1979==
* [[Peter B. Maggs]] ('''1979'''). ''[https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1979-11/1979_11_BYTE_04-11_Fun_and_Games#page/n67/mode/2up Programming Strategies in the Game of Reversi]''. [[Byte Magazine#BYTE411|BYTE, Vol. 4, No. 11]], pp. 66-79
==1980 ...==
* [[Ed Wright]] ('''1980'''). ''[http://www.atariarchives.org/bcc3/showpage.php?page=258 Othello]''. [[Creative Computing#Best3|The Best of Creative Computing Volume 3]]
* Editor ('''1980'''). ''Background and Origins of Othello''. [[Personal Computing#4_7|Personal Computing, Vol. 4, No. 7]], pp. 87
* [[Peter W. Frey]] ('''1980'''). ''Machine Othello''. [[Personal Computing#4_7|Personal Computing, Vol. 4, No. 7]], pp. 89
* [[Paul S. Rosenbloom]] ('''1981'''). ''A world-championship-level Othello program''. Technical report, [[Carnegie Mellon University]], [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4033/a5b1d46beec14600427e391ce600159c0f61.pdf pdf]
* [[Donald H. Mitchell]] ('''1984'''). ''Using Features to Evaluate Positions in Experts' and Novices' Othello Games''. Masters thesis, Department of Psychology, [[Northwestern University]], Evanston, IL
==1985 ...==
* [[Kai-Fu Lee]], [[Sanjoy Mahajan]] ('''1986'''). ''[http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2593&context=compsci BILL: a table-based, knowledge-intensive othello program]''. Technial Report CMU-CS-86-141, [[Carnegie Mellon University]]
* [[Kai-Fu Lee]] ('''1986'''). ''[http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2622&context=compsci A pattern classification approach to evaluation function learning]''. Technial Report CMU-CS-86-173, [[Carnegie Mellon University]]
* [[Kai-Fu Lee]], [[Sanjoy Mahajan]] ('''1988'''). ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0004370288900768 A Pattern Classification Approach to Evaluation Function Learning]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_%28journal%29 Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 36, No. 1
* [[Stuart Russell]], [[Eric Wefald]] ('''1988'''). ''Decision-Theoretic Search Control: General Theory and an Application to Game-Playing.'' Computer Science Division Technical Report 88/435, University of California, Berkeley, CA.
* [[Mathematician#KADeJong|Kenneth A. De Jong]], [[Mathematician#ACSchultz|Alan C. Schultz]] ('''1988'''). ''Using Experience-Based Learning in Game Playing''. Proceedings of the Fifth International Machine Learning Conference, [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.52.5381 CiteSeerX] » [[Learning]]
* [[Stuart Russell]], [[Eric Wefald]] ('''1989'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1623807 On optimal game-tree search using rational metareasoning].'' In Proceedings of the Eleventh International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Detroit, MI: Morgan Kaufmann, [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.79.9229&rep=rep1&type=pdf pdf]
* [[Clarence Hewlett]] ('''1989'''). ''Hardware Help on an Othello Endgame Analyzer''. [[1st Computer Olympiad#Workshop|Heuristic Programming in AI 1]]
* [[Anders Kierulf]] ('''1989'''). ''New Concepts in Computer Othello: Corner Value, Edge Advoidance, Access, and Parity''. [[1st Computer Olympiad#Workshop|Heuristic Programming in AI 1]]
* [[Greg M. Gupton]] ('''1989'''). ''Genetic Learning Algorithm Applied to the Game of Othello''. [[1st Computer Olympiad#Workshop|Heuristic Programming in AI 1]]
==1990 ...==
* [[Kai-Fu Lee]], [[Sanjoy Mahajan]] ('''1990'''). ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/000437029090068B The Development of a World Class Othello Program]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_%28journal%29 Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 43, No. 1
* [[Jean-Christophe Weill]] ('''1991'''). ''Experiments With the NegaC* Search - An Alternative for Othello Endgame Search.'' [[2nd Computer Olympiad#Workshop|Heuristic Programming in AI 2]]
* [[Richard Korf]] and [[Max Chickering]] ('''1994'''). ''[http://www.aaai.org/Library/AAAI/1994/aaai94-210.php Best-first minimax search: Othello results].'' Proceedings of the 13th National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-94), pp. 1365-1370. AAAI Press, Menlo Park, CA.
* [[Victor Allis]] ('''1994'''). ''Searching for Solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence''. Ph.D. Thesis, [[Maastricht University|University of Limburg]], [http://fragrieu.free.fr/SearchingForSolutions.pdf pdf]
* [[David E. Moriarty]], [[Risto Miikkulainen]] ('''1994'''). ''Evolving Neural Networks to focus Minimax Search''. [[AAAI|AAAI-94]], [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~ai-lab/pubs/moriarty.focus.pdf pdf]
==1995 ...==
* [[Anton Leouski]] ('''1995'''). ''Learning of Position Evaluation in the Game of Othello''. Master's Project, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts University of Massachusetts], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amherst,_Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts], [http://people.ict.usc.edu/~leuski/publications/papers/UM-CS-1995-023.pdf pdf]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''1995'''). ''[http://www.jair.org/papers/paper179.html Statistical Feature Combination for the Evaluation of Game Positions]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Artificial_Intelligence_Research JAIR], Vol. 3
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''1995'''). ''ProbCut: An Effective Selective Extension of the Alpha-Beta Algorithm.'' [[ICGA Journal#18_2|ICCA Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2]], pp. 71-76, [http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/%7Emburo/ps/probcut.pdf pdf]
* [[Jean-Marc Alliot]], [[Mathematician#NDurand|Nicolas Durand]] ('''1995'''). ''[https://hal-enac.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00937682 A Genetic Algorithm to Improve an Othello Program]''. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/3-540-61108-8 Artificial Evolution], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_Notes_in_Computer_Science LNCS] 1063, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer]
* [[David Currie]] ('''1996'''). ''Othello Game Player''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Oxford St. John's College], [http://david.currie.name/wp-content/othello.pdf pdf]
* [[Jean-Christophe Weill]] ('''1996'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=228345 The ABDADA Distributed Minimax Search Algorithm]''. Proceedings of the 1996 ACM Computer Science Conference, pp. 131-138. ACM, New York, N.Y, reprinted [[ICGA Journal#19_1|ICCA Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1]], [http://www.recherche.enac.fr/%7Eweill/publications/acm.ps.gz zipped ps]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''1997'''). ''An Evaluation Function for Othello Based on Statistics.'' NEC Research Institute. Technical Report #31.
* [[Mark Brockington]] ('''1997'''). ''KEYANO Unplugged - The Construction of an Othello Program''. Technical Report TR-97-05, Department of Computing Science, [[University of Alberta]], [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.49.2672 CiteSeerX ]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''1997'''). ''Experiments with Multi-ProbCut and a New High-quality Evaluation Function for Othello.'' Technical Report No. 96, NEC Research Institute, Princeton, N.J. [http://skatgame.net/mburo/ps/improve.pdf pdf]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''1997'''). ''The Othello match of the year: Takeshi Murakami vs Logistello''. [[ICGA Journal#20_3|ICCA Journal, Vol 20, No. 3]], [http://skatgame.net/mburo/ps/match-report.ps.gz zipped ps]
* [[Craig S. Bruce]] ('''1998'''). ''[http://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/300 Performance Optimization for Distributed-Shared-Data Systems]''. Ph.D. thesis, [[University of Waterloo]], 6.6. Game-Tree Searching: Othello, pp. 188
* [[Ayumu Nagai]], [[Hiroshi Imai]] ('''1999'''). ''Application of df-pn+ to Othello endgames''. [[Conferences#GPW|5th Game Programming Workshop]] » [[Proof-Number Search]]
==2000 ...==
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''2000'''). ''Experiments with Multi-ProbCut and a new High-Quality Evaluation Function for Othello.'' Games in AI Research (eds. [[Jaap van den Herik]] and [[Hiroyuki Iida]]), pp. 77-96. [[Maastricht University|Universiteit Maastricht]], Maastricht, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-621-6416-1.
* [[Makoto Sakuta]], [[Hiroyuki Iida]] ('''2001'''). ''The Performance of PN*, PDS, and PN Search on 6x6 Othello and Tsume-Shogi''. [[Advances in Computer Games 9]] » [[Proof-Number Search]]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''2002'''). ''Report on the IWEC-2002 Man-Machine Othello Match''. [[ICGA Journal#25_2|ICGA Journal, Vol. 25, No. 2]], [https://skatgame.net/mburo/ps/iwec-match.pdf pdf]
* [[Konstantinos Tournavitis]] ('''2002'''). ''[http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-40031-8_2 MOUSE(μ): A Self-teaching Algorithm that Achieved Master-Strength at Othello]''. [[CG 2002]]
* [[Michael Buro]] ('''2003'''). ''The Evolution of Strong Othello Programs''. [[IFIP]], Vol. 112, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer]
* C.K. Wong, K.K. Lo and P.H.W. Leong ('''2004'''). ''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1393254 An FPGA-based Othello Endgame Solver]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_University_of_Hong_Kong The Chinese University of Hong Kong], [http://www.cse.cuhk.edu.hk/~phwl/mt/public/archives/papers/othello_fpt04.pdf pdf]
==2005 ...==
* [[Simon Lucas]], [[Thomas Philip Runarsson]] ('''2006'''). ''[http://scholar.google.is/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=4eWdc_sAAAAJ&citation_for_view=4eWdc_sAAAAJ:qjMakFHDy7sC Temporal Difference Learning versus Co-Evolution for Acquiring Othello Position Evaluation]''. [[IEEE#CIG|IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games]]
* [[Simon Lucas]] ('''2007'''). ''[http://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=de&user=Jz8DDVAAAAAJ&cstart=20&citation_for_view=Jz8DDVAAAAAJ:QIV2ME_5wuYC Learning to play Othello with N-tuple systems]''. [https://www.chatbots.org/journal/australian_journal_of_intelligent_information_processing_systems/ Australian Journal of Intelligent Information Processing Systems], Special Issue on Game Technology, Vol. 9, No. 4
* [[Edward P. Manning]] ('''2007'''). ''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=4219046 Temporal Difference Learning of an Othello Evaluation Function for a Small Neural Network with Shared Weights]''. [[IEEE#CIG|IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games]]
* [[Pim Nijssen]] ('''2007'''). ''Playing Othello Using Monte Carlo''. Bachelor's Thesis, [[Maastricht University]], [http://www.personeel.unimaas.nl/pim.nijssen/pub/bsc.pdf pdf]
* [[Yasuhiro Osaki]], [[Kazutomo Shibahara]], [[Yasuhiro Tajima]], [[Yoshiyuki Kotani]] ('''2008'''). ''An Othello Evaluation Function Based on Temporal Difference Learning using Probability of Winning''. [http://www.csse.uwa.edu.au/cig08/Proceedings/toc.html CIG'08], [http://www.csse.uwa.edu.au/cig08/Proceedings/papers/8010.pdf pdf]
* [[Toru Ueda]], [[Tsuyoshi Hashimoto]], [[Junichi Hashimoto]], [[Hiroyuki Iida]] ('''2008'''). ''[http://www.springerlink.com/content/v47864x734410148/ Weak Proof-Number Search]''. [[CG 2008]] » [[Proof-Number Search]]
* [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Krzysztof Krawiec]] ('''2009'''). ''Coevolutionary Temporal Difference Learning for Othello''. [[IEEE#CIG|IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games]], [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/wjaskowski/pub/papers/szubert09coevolutionary.pdf pdf]
==2010 ...==
* [[Edward P. Manning]] ('''2010'''). ''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=5409565 Using Resource-Limited Nash Memory to Improve an Othello Evaluation Function]''. [[IEEE#TOCIAIGAMES|IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games]], Vol. 2, No. 1
* [[Edward P. Manning]] ('''2010'''). ''[http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1830667 Coevolution in a Large Search Space using Resource-limited Nash Memory]''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/gecco/gecco2010.html#Manning10 GECCO '10]
'''2011'''
* [[Jean Méhat]], [[Tristan Cazenave]] ('''2011'''). ''A Parallel General Game Player''. [http://www.kuenstliche-intelligenz.de/ KI Journal], Vol. 25, No. 1, [http://www.lamsade.dauphine.fr/~cazenave/papers/rootparallelggp.pdf pdf]
* [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Krzysztof Krawiec]] ('''2011'''). ''Learning Board Evaluation Function for Othello by Hybridizing Coevolution with Temporal Difference Learning''. [http://control.ibspan.waw.pl:3000/mainpage Control and Cybernetics], Vol. 40, No. 3, [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/wjaskowski/pub/papers/szubert2011learning.pdf pdf]
* [[Krzysztof Krawiec]], [[Marcin Szubert]] ('''2011'''). ''Learning N-Tuple Networks for Othello by Coevolutionary Gradient Search''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/gecco/gecco2011.html#KrawiecS11 GECCO 2011], [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/mszubert/pub/krawiec2011gecco.pdf pdf]
* [[Damjan Strnad]], [[Nikola Guid]] ('''2011'''). ''[http://cit.fer.hr/index.php/CIT/article/view/2029 Parallel Alpha-Beta Algorithm on the GPU]''. [http://cit.fer.hr/index.php/CIT CIT. Journal of Computing and Information Technology], Vol. 19, No. 4 » [[GPU]], [[Parallel Search]]
'''2012'''
* [[Paweł Liskowski]] ('''2012'''). ''Co-Evolution versus Evolution with Random Sampling for Acquiring Othello Position Evaluation''. master's thesis, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_University_of_Technology Poznań University of Technology], supervisor [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/wjaskowski/pub/var/pliskowski_msc.pdf pdf]
* [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/pers/hd/d/Dries:Sjoerd_van_den Sjoerd van den Dries], [[Marco Wiering]] ('''2012'''). ''[https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=xVas0I8AAAAJ&cstart=40&citation_for_view=xVas0I8AAAAJ:P5F9QuxV20EC Neural-fitted TD-leaf learning for playing Othello with structured neural networks]''. [[IEEE#NN|IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems]], Vol. 23, No. 11
'''2013'''
* [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/pers/hd/r/Ree:M=_van_der Michiel van der Ree], [[Marco Wiering]] ('''2013'''). ''[https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=xVas0I8AAAAJ&cstart=60&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=xVas0I8AAAAJ:K3LRdlH-MEoC Reinforcement Learning in the Game of Othello: Learning Against a Fixed Opponent and Learning from Self-Play]''. [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/adprl/adprl2013.html#ReeW13 ADPRL 2013]
* [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Krzysztof Krawiec]] ('''2013'''). ''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=6504736 On Scalability, Generalization, and Hybridization of Coevolutionary Learning: a Case Study for Othello]''. [[IEEE#TOCIAIGAMES|IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games]], Vol. 5, No. 3
* [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Paweł Liskowski]], [[Krzysztof Krawiec]] ('''2013'''). ''Shaping Fitness Function for Evolutionary Learning of Game Strategies''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/gecco/gecco2013.html#SzubertJLK13 GECCO 2013], [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/wjaskowski/pub/papers/szubert2013shaping.pdf pdf]
* [[Paweł Liskowski]] ('''2013'''). ''[http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2482752 Quantitative Analysis of the Hall of Fame Coevolutionary Archives]''. [http://www.sigevo.org/gecco-2013/ GECCO '13] Companion Proceedings
* [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Paweł Liskowski]], [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Krzysztof Krawiec]] ('''2013'''). ''Improving Coevolution by Random Sampling''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/gecco/gecco2013.html#JaskowskiLSK13 GECCO 2013], [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/mszubert/pub/jaskowski2013gecco.pdf pdf]
'''2014'''
* [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]], [[Marcin Szubert]], [[Paweł Liskowski]] ('''2014'''). ''Multi-Criteria Comparison of Coevolution and Temporal Difference Learning on Othello''. [http://www.evostar.org/2014/ EvoApplications 2014], [http://www.springer.com/computer/theoretical+computer+science/book/978-3-662-45522-7 Springer, volume 8602]
* [[Shi-Jim Yen]], [[Tsan-Cheng Su]], [[Jr-Chang Chen]], [[Shun-Chin Hsu]] ('''2014'''). ''Solving 6x6 Othello on Volunteer Computing System''. [[Conferences#GPW|GPW-2014]]
* [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]] ('''2014'''). ''Systematic n-Tuple Networks for Othello Position Evaluation''. [[ICGA Journal#37_2|ICGA Journal, Vol. 37, No. 2]]
==2015 ...==
* [[Mohd Nor Akmal Khalid]], [[E. Mei Ang]], [[Umi Kalsom Yusof]], [[Hiroyuki Iida]], [[Taichi Ishitobi]] ('''2015'''). ''[http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-319-27947-3_6 Identifying Critical Positions Based on Conspiracy Numbers]''. [http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-27947-3 Agents and Artificial Intelligence], [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/icaart/icaart2015s.html#KhalidAYII15 ICAART 2015 - Revised Selected Papers]
* [[Shantanu Thakoor]], [[Surag Nair]], [[Megha Jhunjhunwala]] ('''2017'''). ''Learning to Play Othello Without Human Knowledge''. [[Stanford University]], [https://github.com/suragnair/alpha-zero-general/blob/master/pretrained_models/writeup.pdf pdf] » [[AlphaZero]], [[Monte-Carlo Tree Search|MCTS]], [[Deep Learning]] <ref>[https://github.com/suragnair/alpha-zero-general GitHub - suragnair/alpha-zero-general: A clean and simple implementation of a self-play learning algorithm based on AlphaGo Zero (any game, any framework!)]</ref>
=Forum Posts=
* [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.chess.computer/browse_frm/thread/bcb03df7630d6274 Bitboards: speeding up FirstOne] by Laurent Desnogues, [[Computer Chess Forums|rgcc]], April 10, 1996 » [[BitScan]]
* [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.chess.computer/browse_frm/thread/929a1b0a271d7080 Othello Match & Call for Papers] by [[Ingo Althöfer]], [[Computer Chess Forums|rgcc]], March 24, 1997
* [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.chess.computer/browse_frm/thread/8ab4f917234eb016 Enhanced Transposition Table Cutoffs] by [[Andrea Zinno]], [[Computer Chess Forums|rgcc]], July 30, 1997 » [[Enhanced Transposition Cutoff]]
* [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.chess.computer/browse_frm/thread/79d0882097714876 Othello man machine match] by [[Ingo Althöfer]], [[Computer Chess Forums|rgcc]], August 6, 1997
* [http://groups.google.com/group/comp.ai.games/browse_frm/thread/a38f4f81e0a8839d Othello endgame search question] by Daniel Lidström, [http://groups.google.com/group/comp.ai.games/topics comp.ai.games], December 13, 2001
* [https://groups.google.com/d/msg/comp.ai.games/WZeBxfkzfYY/VaCfy1ds2ZYJ stability in a Othello game] by Daniel, [[Compuer Chess Forums|comp.ai.games]], October 10, 2002
* [http://www.talkchess.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=30723 Performance: linux vs Windows vs Mac OS X] by [[Richard Delorme]], [[CCC]], November 21, 2009 » [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edax_(computing) Edax]
* [http://www.talkchess.com/forum/viewtopic.php?start=0&t=37634 WinBoard, exotic version] by [[Harm Geert Muller]], [[CCC]], January 15, 2011 » [[WinBoard]]
=External Links=
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversi Reversi from Wikipedia]
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Othello Computer Othello from Wikipedia]
* [http://www.othello.dk/book/index.php/Main_Page The Othello Wiki Book Project]
* [https://www.game-ai-forum.org/icga-tournaments/game.php?id=22 Othello (ICGA Tournaments)]
* [http://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/wjaskowski/othello-league-players Othello Players] by [[Wojciech Jaśkowski]]
* [http://radagast.se/othello/howto.html Writing an Othello program] by [[Gunnar Andersson]]
* [http://forwardcoding.com/projects/othello.html Othello] by [[Gary Linscott]]
* [http://www.aartbik.com/MISC/reversi.html Perft for Reversi/Othello] by [[Aart Bik]] » [[Perft]] <ref>[http://www.othello.dk/book/index.php/Aart_Bik Aart Bik - The Othello Wiki Book Project]</ref>
* [http://www.andreazinno.it/ Andrea Zinno's Home Page] - Entirely dedicated to the Othello game, by [[Andrea Zinno]]
* [http://members.chello.at/theodor.lauppert/games/othello.htm Othello] from [http://members.chello.at/theodor.lauppert/ Theodor Lauppert's] [http://members.chello.at/theodor.lauppert/games/ Game Gallery]
* [http://gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/othello/ Othello (Reversi)] from [http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/index.htm Elliott Avedon Virtual Museum of Games], [[University of Waterloo]]
* [http://www.beppi.it/public/OthelloMuseum/ The Othello Museum - Home]
* [http://www.pressmangames.com/instructions/instruct_othello.html Pressman Toy Instructions for Othello]
* [http://othello.nu/wofforum/ World Othello Federation]
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othello_%28disambiguation%29 Othello (disambiguation) from Wikipedia]
=References=
<references />
'''[[Games|Up one Level]]'''
