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'''[[Main Page|Home]] * [[People]] * Adriaan de Groot'''
[[FILE:Adrianus Dingeman de Groot.jpg|border|right|thumb| Adriaan de Groot <ref>1930s photograph (found online at albumacademicum.uva.nl), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriaan_de_Groot Adriaan de Groot from Wikipedia]</ref> ]]
'''Adrianus Dingeman (Adriaan) de Groot''' (October 26, 1914 - August 14, 2006),<br/>
was a Dutch [[Psychology|psychologist]] and chess master, who conducted a number of ground-breaking experiments in the [[Cognition|cognitive]] processes that occur in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain brains] of strong chess players. The studies involve participants of all chess backgrounds, from amateurs to masters. They investigate the cognitive requirements and the thought processes involved in moving a chess piece. The participants were usually required to solve a given chess problem correctly under the supervision of an experimenter and represent their thought-processes vocally so that they could be recorded.
=Quotes=
==Chase & Simon==
[[William Chase]] and [[Herbert Simon]] in ''[[William Chase#Perception|Perception in chess]]'', 1973 <ref>[[William Chase]], [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1973'''). ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0010028573900042 Perception in chess]''. [http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622807/description#description Cognitive Psychology], Vol. 4, No. 1, [http://matt.colorado.edu/teaching/highcog/fall8/cs73.pdf pdf]</ref>
The most extensive work to date on perception in chess is that done by De Groot. In his search for differences between masters and weaker players, de Groot was unable to find any gross differences in the statistics of their thought processes: the number of moves considered, search heuristics, depth of search, and so on. Masters search through about the same number of possibilities as weaker players-perhaps even fewer, almost certainly not more-but they are very good at coming up with the “right” moves for further consideration, whereas weaker players spend considerable time analyzing the consequences of bad moves.
De Groot did, however, find an intriguing difference between masters and weaker players in his short-term memory experiments. Masters showed a remarkable ability to reconstruct a chess position almost perfectly after viewing it for only 5 sec. There was a sharp drop off in this ability for players below the master level. This result could not be attributed to the masters’ generally superior memory ability, for when chess positions were constructed by placing the same numbers of pieces randomly on the board, the masters could then do no better in reconstructing them than weaker players, Hence, the masters appear to be constrained by the same severe short-term memory limits as everyone else, and their superior performance with “meaningful’ positions must lie in their ability to perceive structure in such positions and encode them in chunks.
==Fernand Gobet==
[[Fernand Gobet]] in ''Adriaan de Groot: Marriage of two Passions'', 2006 <ref>[[Fernand Gobet]] ('''2006'''). ''Adriaan de Groot: Marriage of two Passions''. [[ICGA Journal#29_4|ICGA Journal, Vol. 29, No. 4]], [http://people.brunel.ac.uk/%7Ehsstffg/preprints/De%20Groot%27s%20obituary%20--%20ICGA.pdf pdf]</ref>, two excerpts :
Through the intervention of his friend [[Max Euwe]], de Groot managed to convince, among others, most of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVRO_1938_chess_tournament AVRO] players to participate in his experiments. Chess giants such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Alekhine Alekhine], Euwe, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuben_Fine Fine], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salo_Flohr Flohr], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Keres Keres] agreed to act as subjects. Some of the experiments – for example, the one with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savielly_Tartakower Tartakover] – were run on the steamer carrying the players to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_Chess_Olympiad 1939 Olympiads in Argentina]. The protocols are reproduced in the English edition of de Groot’s thesis and, apart from their scientific value, are great fun for chess aficionados to read.
...
De Groot proposed also that a player’s thinking process may be divided into four main phases: orientation, exploration, investigation, and proof. In the orientation phase, players collect relevant information and try to form a first (tentative) judgment of the position. During the exploration phase, sample variations are analysed, and, typically, the number of critical moves or plans is reduced to two. The two candidate moves are analysed in great detail during the investigation phase, which is characterised by a more in-depth search than during the exploration phase. Players strive to validate their favourite move (or plan). Note that most of the argumentation used by chess players consists of convincing themselves that one of the two variations is better than the other. Finally, the proof phase is used to recapitulate the information obtained in the analysis and to check the correctness of the argumentation.
=Four Stages=
De Groot defined four stages of the thought process:
# The '''orientation phase''' – grasp the position and formulate general ideas of what to do.
# The '''exploration phase''' – analysis of concrete variations.
# The '''investigation phase''' – choice of a probable best move.
# The '''proof phase''' – confirming the validity of the choice reached in phase three.
His Ph.D. Thesis ''Het denken van den Schaker'' <ref>[[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1946'''). ''Het denken van den Schaker, een experimenteel-psychologische studie''. Ph.D. thesis, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam University of Amsterdam], advisor [[Mathematician#Revesz|Géza Révész]]; N.V. Noord-Hollandse Uitgevers Maatschappij, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam Amsterdam]. Translated with the help of [[George Baylor]], with additions (in '''1965''') as ''Thought and Choice in Chess''. Mouton Publishers, The Hague. ISBN 90-279-7914-6. ([http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/9027979146/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link amazon])</ref> was already cited in [[Claude Shannon|Claude Shannon's]] paper <ref>[[Claude Shannon]] ('''1949'''). Programming a Computer for Playing Chess [http://www.pi.infn.it/%7Ecarosi/chess/shannon.txt (raw text)]</ref> . In "Thought and Choice in Chess", 1965, De Groot introduced [[Iterative Deepening|iterative]] or progressive deepening. His book became the bible for chess programmers in the late sixties during the zenith of the [[Type B Strategy|Type B]] programs.
=Euratom=
An AI-effort in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation machine translation] and on developing a computer chess program in the "human style" was conducted under the auspices of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Atomic_Energy_Community Euratom] agency in the 60s in the spirit of its President [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Hirsch Étienne Hirsch] and a team around [[Max Euwe]], [[Adriaan de Groot]], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Le_Lionnais François Lionnais], [[Mathematician#CBerge|Claude Berge]] and [http://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Barzin Marcel Barzin] <ref>[http://www.paulbraffort.net/langage/intelligence_et_artifices/grisablues.htm Le langage / Intelligence et artifices], by [http://www.paulbraffort.net/ Paul Braffort] 2002 (French) [http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_url?doit=done&tt=url&intl=1&fr=bf-home&trurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paulbraffort.net%2Flangage%2Fintelligence_et_artifices%2Fgrisablues.htm&lp=fr_en&btnTrUrl=Translate translated] by [http://babelfish.yahoo.com/ babelfish]</ref> :
Finally an important international team had been gathered around [[Max Euwe]] (former world champion) to work on the problem of the simulation of the play of the failures. One found there the encyclopedist [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Le_Lionnais François Lionnais], the mathematician [[Mathematician#CBerge|Claude Berge]], the logician [http://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Barzin Barzin], the psychologist [[Adriaan de Groot|De Groot]]. This team made considerably progress on the problems of the mediums of part, but did not have the possibility of carrying out a program of a complete set.
=See also=
* [[Cognition]]
* [[William Chase#Perception|Perception in Chess]]
* [[William Chase#Video|Perception - Video]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[WCCC 1986#Video|WCCC 1986 Video]]
=Selected Publications=
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1946'''). ''Het denken van den Schaker, een experimenteel-psychologische studie.'' Ph.D. thesis, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam University of Amsterdam], advisor [[Mathematician#Revesz|Géza Révész]]; N.V. Noord-Hollandse Uitgevers Maatschappij, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam Amsterdam]. Translated with the help of [[George Baylor]], with additions, (in '''1965''') as ''Thought and Choice in Chess''. Mouton Publishers, The Hague. ISBN 90-279-7914-6.
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1965, 1978'''). ''Thought and Choice in Chess''. Mouton & Co Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-279-7914-6, [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/9027979146/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link amazon], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN9789053569986 google]
[[FILE:ThoughtAndChoiceInChess.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|220px|link=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN9789053569986]]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1966'''). ''Perception and Memory versus Thought: Some Old Ideas and Recent Findings. Problem Solving: Research, Method, and Theory''. (ed. B. Kleinmuntz), pp. 19-50. John Wiley, New York.
* [[Adriaan de Groot]], [[Walter R. Reitman]] (eds.) ('''1966'''). ''Heuristic Processes in Thinking''. International Congress of Psychology, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka_%28publisher%29 Nauka], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow Moscow]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1986'''). ''Intuition in Chess''. [[ICGA Journal#9_2|ICCA Journal, Vol. 9, No. 2]]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1987'''). ''Some Benefits of Advances in Computer Chess''. [[ICGA Journal#10_2|ICCA Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2]]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1988'''). ''A Rejoinder to I.J. Good's Comments''. [[ICGA Journal#11_23|ICCA Journal, Vol. 11, Nos. 2/3]] <ref>[[Jack Good]] ('''1988'''). ''Some Comments Concerning an Article by De Groot.'' [[ICGA Journal#11_23|ICCA Journal, Vol. 11, No. 2/3]]</ref>
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1989'''). ''Some Special Benefits of Advances in Computer Chess''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 5]]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1992'''). [[Allen Newell]]: ''An Adieu''. [[ICGA Journal#15_3|ICCA Journal, Vol. 15, No. 3]]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]], [[Fernand Gobet]] ('''1996'''). ''Perception and Memory in Chess: Heuristics of the professional eye.'' Van Gorcum and Comp. B.V., Assen, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-232-2949-5. Chapter 9; A discussion: Two authors, two different views?
* [[Fernand Gobet]] ('''2006'''). ''Adriaan de Groot: Marriage of two Passions''. [[ICGA Journal#29_4|ICGA Journal, Vol. 29, No. 4]], [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/917c/a46e68d9716ad0dc49dce715a1d5ff381d5a.pdf pdf]
* [[Merim Bilalić]], [[Peter McLeod]], [[Fernand Gobet]] ('''2011'''). ''[http://philpapers.org/rec/GOBEAN Expert and “novice” problem solving strategies in chess: Sixty years of citing de Groot (1946)]''. Thinking and Reasoning, Vol. 14, No. 4
* [http://scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=eHSsRjcAAAAJ&hl=en Michael H. Connors], [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/pers/hd/b/Burns:Bruce_D=.html Bruce D. Burns], [[Guillermo Campitelli]] ('''2011'''). ''[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2011.01196.x/abstract?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=false Expertise in complex decision making: the role of search in chess 70 years after de Groot]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Science_Society Cognitive Science], Vol. 35, No. 8
=External Links=
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriaan_de_Groot Adriaan de Groot from Wikipedia]
* [http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=123513 The Mathematics Genealogy Project - Adriaan de Groot]
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=82308 Adriaan de Groot games at chessgames.com]
* [http://www.ddj.com/hpc-high-performance-computing/184405171 Computer Chess: The Drosophila of AI] by [[L. Stephen Coles]], Dr. Dobb's Portal 2002
* [http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3290 Adriaan de Groot, chess psychologist (1914–2006)] by [[Frederic Friedel]], [[ChessBase]], August 16, 2006
* [http://www.maxpam.nl/2006/09/het-denken-van-de-schaker/ Het denken van de schaker] from [http://www.maxpam.nl/ The Max Pam Globe], September 2006
=References=
<references />
'''[[People|Up one level]]'''
[[FILE:Adrianus Dingeman de Groot.jpg|border|right|thumb| Adriaan de Groot <ref>1930s photograph (found online at albumacademicum.uva.nl), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriaan_de_Groot Adriaan de Groot from Wikipedia]</ref> ]]
'''Adrianus Dingeman (Adriaan) de Groot''' (October 26, 1914 - August 14, 2006),<br/>
was a Dutch [[Psychology|psychologist]] and chess master, who conducted a number of ground-breaking experiments in the [[Cognition|cognitive]] processes that occur in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain brains] of strong chess players. The studies involve participants of all chess backgrounds, from amateurs to masters. They investigate the cognitive requirements and the thought processes involved in moving a chess piece. The participants were usually required to solve a given chess problem correctly under the supervision of an experimenter and represent their thought-processes vocally so that they could be recorded.
=Quotes=
==Chase & Simon==
[[William Chase]] and [[Herbert Simon]] in ''[[William Chase#Perception|Perception in chess]]'', 1973 <ref>[[William Chase]], [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1973'''). ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0010028573900042 Perception in chess]''. [http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622807/description#description Cognitive Psychology], Vol. 4, No. 1, [http://matt.colorado.edu/teaching/highcog/fall8/cs73.pdf pdf]</ref>
The most extensive work to date on perception in chess is that done by De Groot. In his search for differences between masters and weaker players, de Groot was unable to find any gross differences in the statistics of their thought processes: the number of moves considered, search heuristics, depth of search, and so on. Masters search through about the same number of possibilities as weaker players-perhaps even fewer, almost certainly not more-but they are very good at coming up with the “right” moves for further consideration, whereas weaker players spend considerable time analyzing the consequences of bad moves.
De Groot did, however, find an intriguing difference between masters and weaker players in his short-term memory experiments. Masters showed a remarkable ability to reconstruct a chess position almost perfectly after viewing it for only 5 sec. There was a sharp drop off in this ability for players below the master level. This result could not be attributed to the masters’ generally superior memory ability, for when chess positions were constructed by placing the same numbers of pieces randomly on the board, the masters could then do no better in reconstructing them than weaker players, Hence, the masters appear to be constrained by the same severe short-term memory limits as everyone else, and their superior performance with “meaningful’ positions must lie in their ability to perceive structure in such positions and encode them in chunks.
==Fernand Gobet==
[[Fernand Gobet]] in ''Adriaan de Groot: Marriage of two Passions'', 2006 <ref>[[Fernand Gobet]] ('''2006'''). ''Adriaan de Groot: Marriage of two Passions''. [[ICGA Journal#29_4|ICGA Journal, Vol. 29, No. 4]], [http://people.brunel.ac.uk/%7Ehsstffg/preprints/De%20Groot%27s%20obituary%20--%20ICGA.pdf pdf]</ref>, two excerpts :
Through the intervention of his friend [[Max Euwe]], de Groot managed to convince, among others, most of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVRO_1938_chess_tournament AVRO] players to participate in his experiments. Chess giants such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Alekhine Alekhine], Euwe, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuben_Fine Fine], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salo_Flohr Flohr], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Keres Keres] agreed to act as subjects. Some of the experiments – for example, the one with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savielly_Tartakower Tartakover] – were run on the steamer carrying the players to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_Chess_Olympiad 1939 Olympiads in Argentina]. The protocols are reproduced in the English edition of de Groot’s thesis and, apart from their scientific value, are great fun for chess aficionados to read.
...
De Groot proposed also that a player’s thinking process may be divided into four main phases: orientation, exploration, investigation, and proof. In the orientation phase, players collect relevant information and try to form a first (tentative) judgment of the position. During the exploration phase, sample variations are analysed, and, typically, the number of critical moves or plans is reduced to two. The two candidate moves are analysed in great detail during the investigation phase, which is characterised by a more in-depth search than during the exploration phase. Players strive to validate their favourite move (or plan). Note that most of the argumentation used by chess players consists of convincing themselves that one of the two variations is better than the other. Finally, the proof phase is used to recapitulate the information obtained in the analysis and to check the correctness of the argumentation.
=Four Stages=
De Groot defined four stages of the thought process:
# The '''orientation phase''' – grasp the position and formulate general ideas of what to do.
# The '''exploration phase''' – analysis of concrete variations.
# The '''investigation phase''' – choice of a probable best move.
# The '''proof phase''' – confirming the validity of the choice reached in phase three.
His Ph.D. Thesis ''Het denken van den Schaker'' <ref>[[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1946'''). ''Het denken van den Schaker, een experimenteel-psychologische studie''. Ph.D. thesis, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam University of Amsterdam], advisor [[Mathematician#Revesz|Géza Révész]]; N.V. Noord-Hollandse Uitgevers Maatschappij, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam Amsterdam]. Translated with the help of [[George Baylor]], with additions (in '''1965''') as ''Thought and Choice in Chess''. Mouton Publishers, The Hague. ISBN 90-279-7914-6. ([http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/9027979146/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link amazon])</ref> was already cited in [[Claude Shannon|Claude Shannon's]] paper <ref>[[Claude Shannon]] ('''1949'''). Programming a Computer for Playing Chess [http://www.pi.infn.it/%7Ecarosi/chess/shannon.txt (raw text)]</ref> . In "Thought and Choice in Chess", 1965, De Groot introduced [[Iterative Deepening|iterative]] or progressive deepening. His book became the bible for chess programmers in the late sixties during the zenith of the [[Type B Strategy|Type B]] programs.
=Euratom=
An AI-effort in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation machine translation] and on developing a computer chess program in the "human style" was conducted under the auspices of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Atomic_Energy_Community Euratom] agency in the 60s in the spirit of its President [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Hirsch Étienne Hirsch] and a team around [[Max Euwe]], [[Adriaan de Groot]], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Le_Lionnais François Lionnais], [[Mathematician#CBerge|Claude Berge]] and [http://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Barzin Marcel Barzin] <ref>[http://www.paulbraffort.net/langage/intelligence_et_artifices/grisablues.htm Le langage / Intelligence et artifices], by [http://www.paulbraffort.net/ Paul Braffort] 2002 (French) [http://babelfish.yahoo.com/translate_url?doit=done&tt=url&intl=1&fr=bf-home&trurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paulbraffort.net%2Flangage%2Fintelligence_et_artifices%2Fgrisablues.htm&lp=fr_en&btnTrUrl=Translate translated] by [http://babelfish.yahoo.com/ babelfish]</ref> :
Finally an important international team had been gathered around [[Max Euwe]] (former world champion) to work on the problem of the simulation of the play of the failures. One found there the encyclopedist [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Le_Lionnais François Lionnais], the mathematician [[Mathematician#CBerge|Claude Berge]], the logician [http://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Barzin Barzin], the psychologist [[Adriaan de Groot|De Groot]]. This team made considerably progress on the problems of the mediums of part, but did not have the possibility of carrying out a program of a complete set.
=See also=
* [[Cognition]]
* [[William Chase#Perception|Perception in Chess]]
* [[William Chase#Video|Perception - Video]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[WCCC 1986#Video|WCCC 1986 Video]]
=Selected Publications=
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1946'''). ''Het denken van den Schaker, een experimenteel-psychologische studie.'' Ph.D. thesis, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam University of Amsterdam], advisor [[Mathematician#Revesz|Géza Révész]]; N.V. Noord-Hollandse Uitgevers Maatschappij, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam Amsterdam]. Translated with the help of [[George Baylor]], with additions, (in '''1965''') as ''Thought and Choice in Chess''. Mouton Publishers, The Hague. ISBN 90-279-7914-6.
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1965, 1978'''). ''Thought and Choice in Chess''. Mouton & Co Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-279-7914-6, [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/9027979146/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link amazon], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN9789053569986 google]
[[FILE:ThoughtAndChoiceInChess.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|220px|link=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN9789053569986]]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1966'''). ''Perception and Memory versus Thought: Some Old Ideas and Recent Findings. Problem Solving: Research, Method, and Theory''. (ed. B. Kleinmuntz), pp. 19-50. John Wiley, New York.
* [[Adriaan de Groot]], [[Walter R. Reitman]] (eds.) ('''1966'''). ''Heuristic Processes in Thinking''. International Congress of Psychology, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka_%28publisher%29 Nauka], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow Moscow]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1986'''). ''Intuition in Chess''. [[ICGA Journal#9_2|ICCA Journal, Vol. 9, No. 2]]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1987'''). ''Some Benefits of Advances in Computer Chess''. [[ICGA Journal#10_2|ICCA Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2]]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1988'''). ''A Rejoinder to I.J. Good's Comments''. [[ICGA Journal#11_23|ICCA Journal, Vol. 11, Nos. 2/3]] <ref>[[Jack Good]] ('''1988'''). ''Some Comments Concerning an Article by De Groot.'' [[ICGA Journal#11_23|ICCA Journal, Vol. 11, No. 2/3]]</ref>
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1989'''). ''Some Special Benefits of Advances in Computer Chess''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 5]]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]] ('''1992'''). [[Allen Newell]]: ''An Adieu''. [[ICGA Journal#15_3|ICCA Journal, Vol. 15, No. 3]]
* [[Adriaan de Groot]], [[Fernand Gobet]] ('''1996'''). ''Perception and Memory in Chess: Heuristics of the professional eye.'' Van Gorcum and Comp. B.V., Assen, The Netherlands. ISBN 90-232-2949-5. Chapter 9; A discussion: Two authors, two different views?
* [[Fernand Gobet]] ('''2006'''). ''Adriaan de Groot: Marriage of two Passions''. [[ICGA Journal#29_4|ICGA Journal, Vol. 29, No. 4]], [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/917c/a46e68d9716ad0dc49dce715a1d5ff381d5a.pdf pdf]
* [[Merim Bilalić]], [[Peter McLeod]], [[Fernand Gobet]] ('''2011'''). ''[http://philpapers.org/rec/GOBEAN Expert and “novice” problem solving strategies in chess: Sixty years of citing de Groot (1946)]''. Thinking and Reasoning, Vol. 14, No. 4
* [http://scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=eHSsRjcAAAAJ&hl=en Michael H. Connors], [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/pers/hd/b/Burns:Bruce_D=.html Bruce D. Burns], [[Guillermo Campitelli]] ('''2011'''). ''[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2011.01196.x/abstract?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=false Expertise in complex decision making: the role of search in chess 70 years after de Groot]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Science_Society Cognitive Science], Vol. 35, No. 8
=External Links=
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriaan_de_Groot Adriaan de Groot from Wikipedia]
* [http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=123513 The Mathematics Genealogy Project - Adriaan de Groot]
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=82308 Adriaan de Groot games at chessgames.com]
* [http://www.ddj.com/hpc-high-performance-computing/184405171 Computer Chess: The Drosophila of AI] by [[L. Stephen Coles]], Dr. Dobb's Portal 2002
* [http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3290 Adriaan de Groot, chess psychologist (1914–2006)] by [[Frederic Friedel]], [[ChessBase]], August 16, 2006
* [http://www.maxpam.nl/2006/09/het-denken-van-de-schaker/ Het denken van de schaker] from [http://www.maxpam.nl/ The Max Pam Globe], September 2006
=References=
<references />
'''[[People|Up one level]]'''
