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'''[[Main Page|Home]] * [[People]] * Edward Fredkin'''
[[FILE:EdFredkin2006PDP1.jpg|border|right|thumb|link=PDP-1#Video|Edward Fredkin <ref>Capture from the [[PDP-1#Video|PDP-1 Celebration Event Lecture]] 2006 @18:02, [[The Computer History Museum]]</ref> ]]
'''Edward (Ed) Fredkin''', (born 1934)<br/>
an American physicist, computer scientist, pioneer of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_physics digital physics] and advocate of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_philosophy digital philosophy]. He was full professor at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], from 1971 to 1974 Director of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_MAC#Project_MAC Project MAC] and more recently a Distinguished Career Professor at [[Carnegie Mellon University]], at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University Boston University] and a Visiting Professor at MIT.
Fredkin has been broadly interested in computation, hardware as well as software. In the early 1960s, he wrote the first [[PDP-1]] [[Assembly|assembler]] at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt,_Beranek_and_Newman BBN]. He is inventor of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trie trie] data structure <ref>[[Edward Fredkin]] ('''1960'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=367390.367400 Trie Memory]''. [[ACM#Communications|Communications of the ACM]], Vol. 3, No. 9</ref>, the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredkin_gate Fredkin gate] and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billiard-Ball_Computer Billiard-Ball Computer Model] for [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversible_computing reversible computing]. His primary contributions include his work on reversible computing and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_automaton cellular automaton]. While [[Konrad Zuse|Konrad Zuse's]] book, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space Calculating Space], mentioned the importance of reversible computation, the Fredkin gate represented the essential breakthrough <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fredkin Edward Fredkin from Wikipedia]</ref>. He has further been involved in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision computer vision], [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]] research, and computer chess. Ed Fredkin instrumented the original conception and hardware design of the ''Chess-orientated Processing System '' [[CHEOPS]], which was used by [[Alan Baisley|Baisley's]] [[tech#Tech2|Tech 2]] and a [[Brute-Force|brute force]] version of [[Richard Greenblatt|Greenblatt's]] [[Mac Hack]] at the end of the 70s <ref>[[John Moussouris]], [[Jack Holloway]], [[Richard Greenblatt]] ('''1979'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=61701.67028 CHEOPS: A Chess-orientated Processing System]''. [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi9.html Machine Intelligence 9], reprinted ('''1988''') in [[Computer Chess Compendium]]</ref>.
=Photos=
[[FILE:fredkin_working_on_pdp1.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|640px|link=http://www.computerhistory.org/collections/accession/102631244]]
Ed Fredkin working on [[PDP-1]] (1960 ca.) <ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/collections/accession/102631244 Ed Fredkin working on PDP-1] (1960 ca.), from [[The Computer History Museum]]</ref>
[[FILE:ShannonMcCarthyFredkinWeizenbaum.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|640px|link=http://www.ilmarefilm.org/W_E_4_70.htm]]
[[Claude Shannon]], [[John McCarthy]], Ed Fredkin and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Weizenbaum Joseph Weizenbaum] (1966) <ref>[http://www.ilmarefilm.org/W_E_4_70.htm Weizenbaum. Rebel at Work]. A documentary by [http://www.ilmarefilm.org/W_E_8.htm Peter Haas and Silvia Holzinger]</ref>
<span id="Prize"></span>
=The Fredkin Prize=
In 1980, [[Carnegie Mellon University]] has announced the establishment of a $100,000 prize for the first computer program to become World Chess Champion and the beginning of annual computer versus human competition. The prize called Fredkin Prize, has been established by the Fredkin Foundation of Cambridge, Massachusetts <ref>[[Ben Mittman]] ('''1980'''). ''$100,000 Prize Established''. [[ICGA Journal#3_1|ICCA Newsletter, Vol. 3, No. 1]]</ref>, to encourage continued research progress in computer chess. The prize was three-tiered <ref>[http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/h/Hamilton:Carol_McKenna.html Carol McKenna Hamilton], [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/h/Hedberg:Sara_Reese.html Sara Hedberg] ('''1997'''). ''Modern Masters of an Ancient Game''. [[AAAI#AIMAG|AI Magazine]], Vol. 18, No. 4, [http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/download/1329/1230 pdf]</ref>:
# The first award of $5,000 was given to [[Ken Thompson]] and [[Joe Condon]] from [[Bell Laboratories]], who in 1981 developed the [[Belle|first chess machine]] to achieve master status.
# Seven years later, the intermediate prize of $10,000 for the first chess machine to reach international master status was awarded in 1989 to five Carnegie Mellon graduate students who built [[Deep Thought]], the precursor to [[Deep Blue]], at the university.
# The $100,000 third tier of the prize was awarded at [[Conferences#AAAI–97|AAAI–97]] to this IBM team, who built the first computer chess machine that beat a world chess champion.
=Teams honored at AAAI 97=
<ref>[http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/h/Hedberg:Sara_Reese.html Sara Hedberg] ('''1997'''). ''AAAI-97 Highlights - Developments in the AI Field''. [[AAAI#AIMAG|AI Magazine]], Vol. 18, No. 4, [http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/download/1328/1229 pdf]</ref>
* [[Mac Hack|Mac Hack 6]], developed by [[Richard Greenblatt]] at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], was the first computer program to play in a human chess tournament. It was the first program to play and win in a tournament game in 1967.
* The [[Northwestern University]] [[Chess (program)|computer chess program]], developed by [[David Slate]] and [[Larry Atkin]] from the 1960s to the early 1980s, won several computer chess championships during the 1970s, including the [[WCCC 1977|computer world championship in 1977]].
* [[Belle]], developed by [[Ken Thompson]] and [[Joe Condon]] at [[Bell Laboratories|Bell Labs]], was the first chess program to obtain the United States Chess Federation Master title in 1983. It was awarded the first Fredkin Prize of $5,000 for this achievement.
* [[Hitech]], developed at [[Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Mellon]] by [[Hans Berliner]], [[Carl Ebeling]], [[Murray Campbell]] and [[Gordon Goetsch]], was the first system to achieve a Senior Master’s level of performance in 1988.
* [[Deep Thought]], developed at Carnegie Mellon by [[Thomas Anantharaman]], [[Murray Campbell]], [[Feng-hsiung Hsu]], [[Andreas Nowatzyk]] and [[Mike Browne]], was the first system to play at the Grandmaster level. Deep Thought was awarded the $10,000 Fredkin Intermediate Prize for this achievement in 1989 <ref>[[Hans Berliner]] ('''1989'''). ''Deep Thought Wins Fredkin Intermediate Prize''. [[AAAI#AIMAG|AI Magazine]], Vol. 10, No. 2, [http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/viewFile/753/671 pdf]</ref>.
* [[Deep Blue]], a parallel supercomputer that processes an average of 200 million chess positions per second, is the first chess machine to draw and beat a world chess champion in a regulation game, and the first chess machine to beat the world champion in a regulation match.
=Quotes=
“There has never been any doubt in my mind that a computer would ultimately beat a reigning world chess champion,” said Fredkin. “The question has always been when.”
=Selected Publications=
<ref>[http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/Home/Papers/tabid/61/Default.aspx Digital Philosophy - Documents]</ref> <ref>[http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/f/Fredkin:Edward.html DBLP: Edward Fredkin]</ref>
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''1960'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=367390.367400 Trie Memory]''. [[ACM#Communications|Communications of the ACM]], Vol. 3, No. 9
* [[Edward Fredkin]], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommaso_Toffoli Tommaso Toffoli] ('''1978'''). ''Design principles for achieving high-performance submicron digital technologies''. Proposal to DARPA, MIT Laboratory for Computer Science.
* [[Edward Fredkin]], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommaso_Toffoli Tommaso Toffoli] ('''1982'''). ''Conservative logic''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_Theoretical_Physics International Journal of Theoretical Physics], Vol. 21, on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredkin_gate Fredkin gate] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toffoli_Gate Toffoli gate], [http://web.archive.org/web/20061017232512/http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/download_documents/ConservativeLogic.pdf pdf]
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Wright_%28journalist%29 Robert Wright] ('''1989'''). ''Three Scientists and Their Gods: Looking for Meaning in an Age of Information''. HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-097257-2, [http://www.amazon.com/Three-Scientists-Their-Gods-Information/dp/0060972572 amazon.com], profiles of Edward Fredkin, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._O._Wilson Edward O. Wilson], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_E._Boulding Kenneth Boulding]
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''1990'''). ''[http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/Home/Papers/DigitalMechanics/tabid/108/Default.aspx Digital Mechanics - An Informational Process Based on Reversible Universal Cellular Automata]''. Department of Physics, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University Boston University]
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''1992'''). ''[http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/Home/Papers/ANewCosmogony/tabid/107/Default.aspx A New Cosmogony]''. Department of Physics, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University Boston University]
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''1992'''). ''[http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/Home/Papers/FiniteNature/tabid/106/Default.aspx Finite Nature]''. Department of Physics, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University Boston University]
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''2000'''). ''[http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/Home/Papers/OntheSoul/tabid/105/Default.aspx On the Soul]''. (2000 Draft)
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''2004'''). ''Five big questions with pretty simple answers''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Journal_of_Research_and_Development IBM Journal of Research and Development], Vol. 48, No. 1
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''2005'''). ''A computing architecture for physics''. [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1062261 2nd Conference on Computing Frontiers]
* [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/m/Miller:Daniel_B=.html Daniel B. Miller], [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''2005'''). ''Two-state, Reversible, Universal Cellular Automata in Three Dimensions''. [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1062261 2nd Conference on Computing Frontiers]
=External Links=
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fredkin Edward Fredkin from Wikipedia]
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredkin_Finite_Nature_Hypothesis Fredkin finite nature hypothesis from Wikipedia]
* [http://www.bottomlayer.com/bottom/physlink.html Links & Resources in Philosophy & Physics]
* [http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/ Digital Philosophy.org > Home]
* <span id="PDP-1"></span>[http://www.computerhistory.org/events/index.php?id=1142978073 The Mouse That Roared: PDP-1 Celebration Event Lecture], May 15, 2006 (1:53:44) Mountain View, CA, USA: © '''2006''', [[The Computer History Museum]]. Panel discussion including [[Alan Kotok]] (53:50) and [[John McCarthy]] (1:27:20), moderated by Edward Fredkin from 17:40, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube YouTube] Video
: {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J8zU8WQO-PY|alignment=left|valignment=top}}
=References=
<references />
'''[[People|Up one level]]'''
[[FILE:EdFredkin2006PDP1.jpg|border|right|thumb|link=PDP-1#Video|Edward Fredkin <ref>Capture from the [[PDP-1#Video|PDP-1 Celebration Event Lecture]] 2006 @18:02, [[The Computer History Museum]]</ref> ]]
'''Edward (Ed) Fredkin''', (born 1934)<br/>
an American physicist, computer scientist, pioneer of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_physics digital physics] and advocate of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_philosophy digital philosophy]. He was full professor at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], from 1971 to 1974 Director of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_MAC#Project_MAC Project MAC] and more recently a Distinguished Career Professor at [[Carnegie Mellon University]], at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University Boston University] and a Visiting Professor at MIT.
Fredkin has been broadly interested in computation, hardware as well as software. In the early 1960s, he wrote the first [[PDP-1]] [[Assembly|assembler]] at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt,_Beranek_and_Newman BBN]. He is inventor of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trie trie] data structure <ref>[[Edward Fredkin]] ('''1960'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=367390.367400 Trie Memory]''. [[ACM#Communications|Communications of the ACM]], Vol. 3, No. 9</ref>, the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredkin_gate Fredkin gate] and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billiard-Ball_Computer Billiard-Ball Computer Model] for [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversible_computing reversible computing]. His primary contributions include his work on reversible computing and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_automaton cellular automaton]. While [[Konrad Zuse|Konrad Zuse's]] book, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space Calculating Space], mentioned the importance of reversible computation, the Fredkin gate represented the essential breakthrough <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fredkin Edward Fredkin from Wikipedia]</ref>. He has further been involved in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision computer vision], [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]] research, and computer chess. Ed Fredkin instrumented the original conception and hardware design of the ''Chess-orientated Processing System '' [[CHEOPS]], which was used by [[Alan Baisley|Baisley's]] [[tech#Tech2|Tech 2]] and a [[Brute-Force|brute force]] version of [[Richard Greenblatt|Greenblatt's]] [[Mac Hack]] at the end of the 70s <ref>[[John Moussouris]], [[Jack Holloway]], [[Richard Greenblatt]] ('''1979'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=61701.67028 CHEOPS: A Chess-orientated Processing System]''. [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi9.html Machine Intelligence 9], reprinted ('''1988''') in [[Computer Chess Compendium]]</ref>.
=Photos=
[[FILE:fredkin_working_on_pdp1.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|640px|link=http://www.computerhistory.org/collections/accession/102631244]]
Ed Fredkin working on [[PDP-1]] (1960 ca.) <ref>[http://www.computerhistory.org/collections/accession/102631244 Ed Fredkin working on PDP-1] (1960 ca.), from [[The Computer History Museum]]</ref>
[[FILE:ShannonMcCarthyFredkinWeizenbaum.jpg|none|border|text-bottom|640px|link=http://www.ilmarefilm.org/W_E_4_70.htm]]
[[Claude Shannon]], [[John McCarthy]], Ed Fredkin and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Weizenbaum Joseph Weizenbaum] (1966) <ref>[http://www.ilmarefilm.org/W_E_4_70.htm Weizenbaum. Rebel at Work]. A documentary by [http://www.ilmarefilm.org/W_E_8.htm Peter Haas and Silvia Holzinger]</ref>
<span id="Prize"></span>
=The Fredkin Prize=
In 1980, [[Carnegie Mellon University]] has announced the establishment of a $100,000 prize for the first computer program to become World Chess Champion and the beginning of annual computer versus human competition. The prize called Fredkin Prize, has been established by the Fredkin Foundation of Cambridge, Massachusetts <ref>[[Ben Mittman]] ('''1980'''). ''$100,000 Prize Established''. [[ICGA Journal#3_1|ICCA Newsletter, Vol. 3, No. 1]]</ref>, to encourage continued research progress in computer chess. The prize was three-tiered <ref>[http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/h/Hamilton:Carol_McKenna.html Carol McKenna Hamilton], [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/h/Hedberg:Sara_Reese.html Sara Hedberg] ('''1997'''). ''Modern Masters of an Ancient Game''. [[AAAI#AIMAG|AI Magazine]], Vol. 18, No. 4, [http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/download/1329/1230 pdf]</ref>:
# The first award of $5,000 was given to [[Ken Thompson]] and [[Joe Condon]] from [[Bell Laboratories]], who in 1981 developed the [[Belle|first chess machine]] to achieve master status.
# Seven years later, the intermediate prize of $10,000 for the first chess machine to reach international master status was awarded in 1989 to five Carnegie Mellon graduate students who built [[Deep Thought]], the precursor to [[Deep Blue]], at the university.
# The $100,000 third tier of the prize was awarded at [[Conferences#AAAI–97|AAAI–97]] to this IBM team, who built the first computer chess machine that beat a world chess champion.
=Teams honored at AAAI 97=
<ref>[http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/h/Hedberg:Sara_Reese.html Sara Hedberg] ('''1997'''). ''AAAI-97 Highlights - Developments in the AI Field''. [[AAAI#AIMAG|AI Magazine]], Vol. 18, No. 4, [http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/download/1328/1229 pdf]</ref>
* [[Mac Hack|Mac Hack 6]], developed by [[Richard Greenblatt]] at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], was the first computer program to play in a human chess tournament. It was the first program to play and win in a tournament game in 1967.
* The [[Northwestern University]] [[Chess (program)|computer chess program]], developed by [[David Slate]] and [[Larry Atkin]] from the 1960s to the early 1980s, won several computer chess championships during the 1970s, including the [[WCCC 1977|computer world championship in 1977]].
* [[Belle]], developed by [[Ken Thompson]] and [[Joe Condon]] at [[Bell Laboratories|Bell Labs]], was the first chess program to obtain the United States Chess Federation Master title in 1983. It was awarded the first Fredkin Prize of $5,000 for this achievement.
* [[Hitech]], developed at [[Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Mellon]] by [[Hans Berliner]], [[Carl Ebeling]], [[Murray Campbell]] and [[Gordon Goetsch]], was the first system to achieve a Senior Master’s level of performance in 1988.
* [[Deep Thought]], developed at Carnegie Mellon by [[Thomas Anantharaman]], [[Murray Campbell]], [[Feng-hsiung Hsu]], [[Andreas Nowatzyk]] and [[Mike Browne]], was the first system to play at the Grandmaster level. Deep Thought was awarded the $10,000 Fredkin Intermediate Prize for this achievement in 1989 <ref>[[Hans Berliner]] ('''1989'''). ''Deep Thought Wins Fredkin Intermediate Prize''. [[AAAI#AIMAG|AI Magazine]], Vol. 10, No. 2, [http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/viewFile/753/671 pdf]</ref>.
* [[Deep Blue]], a parallel supercomputer that processes an average of 200 million chess positions per second, is the first chess machine to draw and beat a world chess champion in a regulation game, and the first chess machine to beat the world champion in a regulation match.
=Quotes=
“There has never been any doubt in my mind that a computer would ultimately beat a reigning world chess champion,” said Fredkin. “The question has always been when.”
=Selected Publications=
<ref>[http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/Home/Papers/tabid/61/Default.aspx Digital Philosophy - Documents]</ref> <ref>[http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/f/Fredkin:Edward.html DBLP: Edward Fredkin]</ref>
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''1960'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=367390.367400 Trie Memory]''. [[ACM#Communications|Communications of the ACM]], Vol. 3, No. 9
* [[Edward Fredkin]], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommaso_Toffoli Tommaso Toffoli] ('''1978'''). ''Design principles for achieving high-performance submicron digital technologies''. Proposal to DARPA, MIT Laboratory for Computer Science.
* [[Edward Fredkin]], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommaso_Toffoli Tommaso Toffoli] ('''1982'''). ''Conservative logic''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_Theoretical_Physics International Journal of Theoretical Physics], Vol. 21, on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredkin_gate Fredkin gate] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toffoli_Gate Toffoli gate], [http://web.archive.org/web/20061017232512/http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/download_documents/ConservativeLogic.pdf pdf]
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Wright_%28journalist%29 Robert Wright] ('''1989'''). ''Three Scientists and Their Gods: Looking for Meaning in an Age of Information''. HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-097257-2, [http://www.amazon.com/Three-Scientists-Their-Gods-Information/dp/0060972572 amazon.com], profiles of Edward Fredkin, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._O._Wilson Edward O. Wilson], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_E._Boulding Kenneth Boulding]
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''1990'''). ''[http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/Home/Papers/DigitalMechanics/tabid/108/Default.aspx Digital Mechanics - An Informational Process Based on Reversible Universal Cellular Automata]''. Department of Physics, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University Boston University]
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''1992'''). ''[http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/Home/Papers/ANewCosmogony/tabid/107/Default.aspx A New Cosmogony]''. Department of Physics, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University Boston University]
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''1992'''). ''[http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/Home/Papers/FiniteNature/tabid/106/Default.aspx Finite Nature]''. Department of Physics, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University Boston University]
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''2000'''). ''[http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/Home/Papers/OntheSoul/tabid/105/Default.aspx On the Soul]''. (2000 Draft)
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''2004'''). ''Five big questions with pretty simple answers''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Journal_of_Research_and_Development IBM Journal of Research and Development], Vol. 48, No. 1
* [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''2005'''). ''A computing architecture for physics''. [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1062261 2nd Conference on Computing Frontiers]
* [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/m/Miller:Daniel_B=.html Daniel B. Miller], [[Edward Fredkin]] ('''2005'''). ''Two-state, Reversible, Universal Cellular Automata in Three Dimensions''. [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1062261 2nd Conference on Computing Frontiers]
=External Links=
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fredkin Edward Fredkin from Wikipedia]
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredkin_Finite_Nature_Hypothesis Fredkin finite nature hypothesis from Wikipedia]
* [http://www.bottomlayer.com/bottom/physlink.html Links & Resources in Philosophy & Physics]
* [http://www.digitalphilosophy.org/ Digital Philosophy.org > Home]
* <span id="PDP-1"></span>[http://www.computerhistory.org/events/index.php?id=1142978073 The Mouse That Roared: PDP-1 Celebration Event Lecture], May 15, 2006 (1:53:44) Mountain View, CA, USA: © '''2006''', [[The Computer History Museum]]. Panel discussion including [[Alan Kotok]] (53:50) and [[John McCarthy]] (1:27:20), moderated by Edward Fredkin from 17:40, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube YouTube] Video
: {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J8zU8WQO-PY|alignment=left|valignment=top}}
=References=
<references />
'''[[People|Up one level]]'''
