Difference between revisions of "Artificial Intelligence"

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'''[[Main Page|Home]] * Artificial Intelligence'''
 
'''[[Main Page|Home]] * Artificial Intelligence'''
  
[[FILE:computerzeitalter.jpg|border|right|thumb|link=http://www.schaakkunst.nl/Schaakkunst_besser.htm?id=GK&id2=GA&id3=IN|[[Arts#Besser|Bernd Besser]], computerzeitalter <ref>[http://www.schaakkunst.nl/Schaakkunst_besser.htm?id=GK&id2=GA&id3=IN Schaakkunst Bernd Besser]</ref> ]]
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[[FILE:computerzeitalter.jpg|border|right|thumb|link=http://www.schaakkunst.nl/Schaakkunst_besser.htm?id=GK&id2=GA&id3=IN|[[:Category:Bernd Besser|Bernd Besser]], computerzeitalter <ref>[http://www.schaakkunst.nl/Schaakkunst_besser.htm?id=GK&id2=GA&id3=IN Schaakkunst Bernd Besser]</ref> ]]
  
 
'''Artificial Intelligence''', (AI)<br/>
 
'''Artificial Intelligence''', (AI)<br/>
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=Poker, the next Challenge=  
 
=Poker, the next Challenge=  
 
[[Graham Kendall]] and [[Jonathan Schaeffer]] on [http://ilk.uvt.nl/icga/games/Poker/ Poker] <ref>[[Graham Kendall]], [[Jonathan Schaeffer]] ('''2006'''). ''[http://ilk.uvt.nl/icga/games/Poker/ Poker]''. [[ICGA Journal#29_3|ICGA Journal, Vol. 29, No. 3]]</ref> :
 
[[Graham Kendall]] and [[Jonathan Schaeffer]] on [http://ilk.uvt.nl/icga/games/Poker/ Poker] <ref>[[Graham Kendall]], [[Jonathan Schaeffer]] ('''2006'''). ''[http://ilk.uvt.nl/icga/games/Poker/ Poker]''. [[ICGA Journal#29_3|ICGA Journal, Vol. 29, No. 3]]</ref> :
  For many years Chess (and perhaps more recently Go) has served as the Drosophila of AI research. Decades of research culminated in the defeat of Garry Kasparov by DEEP BLUE in May 1997. There is still an active research community that uses Chess as a test-bed for AI research (as seen in this journal), but the game is limited in the types of challenges that it can offer to the AI researcher. Being a game of perfect information (both players know the full state of the game at any given point) with a relatively small branching factor, researchers have reduced the challenge of building a strong AI for Chess to merely one of deep brute-force search. The research challenges are to create a good evaluation function, and to design an effective search algorithm. This “solution” to Chess is unappealing to many AI purists. Nevertheless, alternative AI approaches have been largely ineffective.
 
  
Poker, as an experimental test-bed for exploring AI, is a much richer domain than Chess (and Go).
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For many years Chess (and perhaps more recently Go) has served as the Drosophila of AI research. Decades of research culminated in the defeat of Garry Kasparov by DEEP BLUE in May 1997. There is still an active research community that uses Chess as a test-bed for AI research (as seen in this journal), but the game is limited in the types of challenges that it can offer to the AI researcher. Being a game of perfect information (both players know the full state of the game at any given point) with a relatively small branching factor, researchers have reduced the challenge of building a strong AI for Chess to merely one of deep brute-force search. The research challenges are to create a good evaluation function, and to design an effective search algorithm. This “solution” to Chess is unappealing to many AI purists. Nevertheless, alternative AI approaches have been largely ineffective.
# Imperfect information. Parts of the game state (opponent hands) are not known.
+
 
# Multiple players. Many popular poker variants can be played with up to 10 players.
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Poker, as an experimental test-bed for exploring AI, is a much richer domain than Chess (and Go).
# Stochastic. The dealing of the cards adds a random element to the game.
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# Imperfect information. Parts of the game state (opponent hands) are not known.
# Deception. Predictable play can be exploited by an opponent. Hence, deceptive play is an essential ingredient of strong play (e.g., bluffing).
+
# Multiple players. Many popular poker variants can be played with up to 10 players.
# Opponent modelling. Observing your opponent(s) and adjusting your play to exploit (perceived) opponent tendencies is necessary to maximize poker winnings.
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# Stochastic. The dealing of the cards adds a random element to the game.
# Information sparsity. Many poker hands end in the players not revealing their cards. This limits the amount of data available to learn from.  
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# Deception. Predictable play can be exploited by an opponent. Hence, deceptive play is an essential ingredient of strong play (e.g., bluffing).
 +
# Opponent modelling. Observing your opponent(s) and adjusting your play to exploit (perceived) opponent tendencies is necessary to maximize poker winnings.
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# Information sparsity. Many poker hands end in the players not revealing their cards. This limits the amount of data available to learn from.  
  
 
=Subfields=  
 
=Subfields=  
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* [[Search]]
 
* [[Search]]
 
* [[Alan Turing#TuringTest|Turing Test]]
 
* [[Alan Turing#TuringTest|Turing Test]]
 +
 +
=Selected Publications=
 +
==1945 ...==
 +
* [[Mathematician#VannevarBush|Vannevar Bush]] ('''1945'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As_We_May_Think As We May Think]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic The Atlantic Monthly], July 1945, [http://archive.computerhistory.org/projects/chess/related_materials/text/2-0.As_we_may_think.Bush-Vannevar/2-0.As_we_may_think.Bush-Vannevar.1945.ATLANTIC_MONTHLY.062303004.pdf pdf] from [[The Computer History Museum]]
 +
* [[Claude Shannon]] ('''1949'''). ''[http://www.pi.infn.it/%7Ecarosi/chess/shannon.txt Programming a Computer for Playing Chess]''. [http://archive.computerhistory.org/projects/chess/related_materials/text/2-0%20and%202-1.Programming_a_computer_for_playing_chess.shannon/2-0%20and%202-1.Programming_a_computer_for_playing_chess.shannon.062303002.pdf pdf] from [[The Computer History Museum]]
 +
==1950 ...==
 +
* [[Alan Turing]] ('''1950'''). ''[http://loebner.net/Prizef/TuringArticle.html Computing Machinery and Intelligence]''. Mind, 59, 433-460. [http://archive.computerhistory.org/projects/chess/related_materials/text/2-0%20and%202-1.Computing_machinery_and_intelligence.turing/2-0%20and%202-1.Computing_machinery_and_intelligence.turing-alan.mind-59.1950.062303001.pdf pdf] from [[The Computer History Museum]]
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* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-abs_connect?return_req=no_params&author=Richards,%20Paul%20I.&db_key=GEN Paul I. Richards] ('''1951'''). ''Machines which can learn''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Scientist American Scientist], 39:711-716
 +
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-abs_connect?return_req=no_params&author=Richards,%20Paul%20I.&db_key=GEN Paul I. Richards] ('''1952'''). ''On Game Learning Machines''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scientific_Monthly The Scientific Monthly], Vol. 74, No. 4, April 1952
 +
* [[Marvin Minsky]] ('''1954'''). ''Neural Nets and the Brain Model Problem''. Ph.D. dissertation, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University Princeton University]
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==1955 ...==
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* [[John McCarthy]], [[Marvin Minsky]], [[Nathaniel Rochester]], [[Claude Shannon]] ('''1955'''). ''[http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence]''.
 +
* [[Allen Newell]] ('''1955'''). ''The Chess Machine: An Example of Dealing with a Complex Task by Adaptation''. Proceedings Western Joint Computer Conference, pp. 101-108. Reprinted ('''1988''') in [[Computer Chess Compendium]]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Rosenblatt Frank Rosenblatt] ('''1957'''). ''The Perceptron - a Perceiving and Recognizing Automaton''. Report 85-460-1, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calspan#History Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory] <ref>[http://csis.pace.edu/~ctappert/srd2011/rosenblatt-contributions.htm Rosenblatt's Contributions]</ref>
 +
* [[Allen Newell]], [[Cliff Shaw]], [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1958'''). ''Chess Playing Programs and the Problem of Complexity''. IBM Journal of Research and Development, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 320-335. Reprinted (1963) in [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=6685 Computers and Thought] (eds. [[Edward Feigenbaum|Edward A. Feigenbaum]] and [[Mathematician#JulianFeldman|Julian Feldman]]), pp. 39-70. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y. [http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/024/ibmrd0204I.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[John McCarthy]] ('''1959'''). ''[http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/mcc59/mcc59.html Programs with Common Sense]'', [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/mcc59.pdf pdf]
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* [[Allen Newell]], [[Cliff Shaw]], [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1959'''). ''Report on a general problem-solving program''. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Processing, pp. 256-264 <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Problem_Solver General Problem Solver from Wikipedia]</ref>
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* [[Woodrow W. Bledsoe]], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iben_Browning Iben Browning] ('''1959'''). ''[http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1460326 Pattern Recognition and Reading by Machine]''. In Proceedings of the Eastern Joint Computer Conference
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==1960 ...==
 +
* [http://www.rand.org/pubs/classics/building.html John D. Williams] ('''1960'''). ''Toward Intelligent Machines''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAND_Corporation RAND Corporation], P-2170, 29 December 1960
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Taube Mortimer Taube] ('''1961'''). ''Computers and Common Sense: The Myth of Thinking Machines''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University_Press Columbia University Press]
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* [[Marvin Minsky]] ('''1961'''). ''Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence''. Proc IRE, 49, pp. 8-30. Reprinted (1963) in [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=6685 Computers and Thought] (eds. [[Edward Feigenbaum|Edward A. Feigenbaum]] and [[Mathematician#JulianFeldman|Julian Feldman]]), [http://courses.csail.mit.edu/6.803/pdf/steps.pdf pdf]
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* [[John Maynard Smith]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1961'''). ''Machines that play games''. New Scientist, 12, 367-9. <ref>[http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/CSE/members/jms/JMSpublications.pdf Publications of John Maynard Smith] (pdf)</ref>
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Rosenblatt Frank Rosenblatt] ('''1962'''). ''[http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000203591 Principles of Neurodynamics: Perceptrons and the Theory of Brain Mechanisms]''. Spartan Books
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* [[Edward Feigenbaum]], [[Mathematician#JulianFeldman|Julian Feldman]] (eds.) ('''1963'''). ''[http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=6685 Computers and Thought]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill], New York, N.Y.
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* [http://www.openminds.tv/nsa-practices-deciphering-et-signals-668/ Howard H. Campaigne] ('''1964'''). ''Time Is - Time Was - Time Is Past. Computers for Intelligence''. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/tech_journals/time_is.pdf pdf] from the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency National Security Agency]
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==1965 ...==
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* [[Mathematician#HDreyfus|Hubert L. Dreyfus]]  ('''1965'''). ''[http://www.computerhistory.org/chess/full_record.php?iid=doc-431614f691d6d Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAND Rand] Paper.
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* [[Jack Good]] ('''1965'''). ''[http://www.acceleratingfuture.com/pages/ultraintelligentmachine.html Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine]''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/%7Eley/db/journals/ac/ac6.html Advances in Computers, Vol. 6], [http://www.stat.vt.edu/tech_reports/2005/GoodTechReport.pdf pdf], [http://commonsenseatheism.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Good-Speculations-Concerning-the-First-Ultraintelligent-Machine.pdf pdf]
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Solomonoff Ray Solomonoff] ('''1966'''). ''Some Recent Work in Artificial Intelligence''. Proc. of the [[IEEE]], [http://world.std.com/%7Erjs/Some%20Recent%20Work%20in%20Artificial%20Intelligence.pdf pdf]
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* [[Marvin Minsky]], [[Mathematician#SPapert|Seymour Papert]] ('''1969'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptrons_%28book%29 Perceptrons]''. <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_winter#The_abandonment_of_connectionism_in_1969 The abandonment of connectionism in 1969 - Wikipedia]</ref> <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Rosenblatt Frank Rosenblatt] ('''1962'''). ''[http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000203591 Principles of Neurodynamics: Perceptrons and the Theory of Brain Mechanisms]''. Spartan Books</ref>
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* [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1969'''). ''The Sciences of the Artificial''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press The MIT Press], 1st Edition
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==1970 ...==
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* [[Mikhail Botvinnik]] ('''1970'''). ''Computers, Chess and Long-Range Planning''. Springer-Verlag, New York.
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* [[James R. Slagle]] ('''1971'''). ''Artificial Intelligence: The Heuristic Programming Approach''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill]
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* [[Mathematician#NilsNilsson|Nils J. Nilsson]] ('''1971'''). ''Problem Solving Methods in Artificial Intelligence''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill]
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* [[Mathematician#NFindler|Nicholas V. Findler]], [[Mathematician#BMeltzer|Bernard Meltzer]] (eds.) ('''1971'''). ''Artificial Intelligence and Heuristic Programming''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press Edinburgh University Press], ISBN 0-85224-199-2
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* [[Marvin Minsky]], [[Mathematician#SPapert|Seymour Papert]] ('''1972'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptrons_%28book%29 Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press The MIT Press], 2nd edition with corrections
 +
* [[Mathematician#HDreyfus|Hubert L. Dreyfus]] ('''1972, 1979, 1991'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Computers_Can%27t_Do What Computers Can't Do]''.
 +
* [http://www.ai.sri.com/people/firschein Oscar Firschein], [http://www.ai.sri.com/people/fischler Martin A. Fischler], [[L. Stephen Coles]], [http://commerce.net/board-member/dr-jay-m-tenenbaum/ Jay M. Tenenbaum] ('''1973'''). ''[http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1624789 Forecasting and Assessing the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Society]''. [[Conferences#IJCAI|3. IJCAI]], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford,_California Stanford, California]
 +
* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1974'''). ''On Machine Intelligence''. Edinburgh: University Press, [http://www.abebooks.com/servlet/SearchResults?isbn=085224262X abebooks.com], [http://www.alibris.com/search/books/qwork/4836304/used/On%20machine%20intelligence alibris.com], [http://www.biblio.com/isbn/9780852242629.html biblio.com]
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==1975 ...==
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Henry_Holland John Henry Holland] ('''1975'''). ''Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems: An Introductory Analysis with Applications to Biology, Control, and Artificial Intelligence''. [http://www.amazon.com/Adaptation-Natural-Artificial-Systems-Introductory/dp/0262581116 amazon.com]
 +
* [[A. Harry Klopf]] ('''1975'''). ''[http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1045237 A Comparison of Natural and Artificial Intelligence]''. [[ACM#SIG|ACM SIGART Bulletin]], No. 52
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* [[Allen Newell]], [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1976'''). ''[http://www.computerhistory.org/chess/full_record.php?iid=doc-431614f691642 Computer Science as Empirical Inquiry: Symbols and Search]''. [[ACM#Communications|Communications of the ACM]], Vol. 19, No. 3, ACM Turing Award Lecture, [http://archive.computerhistory.org/projects/chess/related_materials/text/2-3.Computer_science_as_empirical_inquiry/2-3.Computer_science_as_empirical_inquiry.newell_simon.1975.ACM.062303007.pdf pdf] from [[The Computer History Museum]] <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_symbol_system Physical symbol system from Wikipedia]</ref>
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* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1976'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1045272 AL1: a package for generating strategies from tables]''. [[ACM#SIG|ACM SIGART Bulletin]], No. 59
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* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1976'''). ''An Advice-Taking System for Computer Chess.'' Computer Bulletin, Ser. 2, Vol. 10, pp. 12-14. ISSN 0010-4531.
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* [[Mathematician#ARosenfeld|Azriel Rosenfeld]], [[Mathematician#JeromeFeldman|Jerome A. Feldman]], [[Laveen Kanal|Laveen N. Kanal]], [[Patrick Winston|Patrick H. Winston]] ('''1977'''). ''AI and Pattern Recognition''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/ijcai/ijcai77.html#RosenfeldFKW77 IJCAI 1977]
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* [[Ivan Bratko]] ('''1979'''). ''Implementing Search Heuristics using the AL1 Advice-Taking System''. Proc. Sixth Int. Joint Conf. on Art. Intell., pp. 95-97.
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* [[Alan H. Bond]] ('''1979'''). ''An Approach to Artificial Intelligence''. [http://www.exso.com/position/approc.pdf pdf]
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==1980 ...==
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* [[Allen Newell]] ('''1980'''). ''Physical Symbol Systems''. [http://cognitivesciencesociety.org/journal_csj.html Cognitive Science], Vol. 4, No. 2
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* [[Mikhail Botvinnik]], [[Boris Stilman]], [[Alexander Yudin]], [[Alexander Reznitskiy]], [[Michael Tsfasman]] ('''1980'''). ''Thinking of Man and Computer'', Proc. of the Second International Meeting on Artificial Intelligence, pp. 1-9, Repino, Leningrad, Russia
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* [[David Wilkins]] ('''1980'''). ''Using patterns and plans in chess''. Artificial Intelligence, vol. 14, pp. 165-203. Reprinted ('''1988''') in [[Computer Chess Compendium]]
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* [[Marvin Minsky]] ('''1980'''). ''K-Lines: A Theory of Memory''. Cognitive Science 4, 117-133, [http://csjarchive.cogsci.rpi.edu/1980v04/i02/p0117p0133/MAIN.PDF pdf] <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-line_%28artificial_intelligence%29 K-line (artificial intelligence) from Wikipedia]</ref>
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* [[Mathematician#TWinograd|Terry Winograd]] ('''1980'''). ''What Does it Mean to Understand Language?'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Science_(journal) Cognitive Science], Vol. 4, No. 3
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* [[Hans Berliner]] ('''1981'''). ''An Examination of Brute Force Intelligence.'' Proceedings of [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/%7Eley/db/conf/ijcai/ijcai81.html IJCAI 81], Vancouver, pp. 581-587, Vancouver. [http://ijcai.org/Past%20Proceedings/IJCAI-81-VOL%201/PDF/105.pdf pdf]
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* [http://www.linkedin.com/in/avronbarr Avron Barr], [[Edward Feigenbaum]] (eds.) ('''1981'''). ''[http://archive.org/details/handbookofartific01barr The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence]''. Vol. 1, HeurisTech Press
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* [http://www.linkedin.com/in/avronbarr Avron Barr], [[Edward Feigenbaum]] (eds). ('''1982'''). ''[http://archive.org/details/handbookofartific02barr The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence]''. Vol. 2, HeurisTech Press
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* [http://w3.sista.arizona.edu/~cohen/ Paul Cohen], [[Edward Feigenbaum]] (eds.) ('''1982'''). ''[http://archive.org/details/handbookofartific03cohe The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence]''. Vol. 3, HeurisTech Press
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* [[Donald Michie]] ('''1982'''). ''Chess with computers. Machine Intelligence and Related Topics''. Gordon and Breach Science
 +
* [[Dana S. Nau]], [[Vipin Kumar]],  [[Laveen Kanal|Laveen N. Kanal]] ('''1982'''). ''A General Paradigm for A.I. Search Procedures''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/aaai/aaai82.html#NauKK82 AAAI 1982]
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* [http://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~mperkows/index.html Marek Perkowski], [http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrzej_G%C3%B3ralski Andrzej Goralski], [[Gerard Zieliński]] ('''1982'''). ''Elements of Artificial Intelligence''. Institute of Automatic Control, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_University_of_Technology Warsaw University of Technology]
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* [[A. Harry Klopf]] ('''1982'''). ''The Hedonistic Neuron: A Theory of Memory, Learning, and Intelligence''. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, [[University of Michigan]]
 +
* [[Danny Kopec]], [[Donald Michie]] ('''1983'''). ''Mismatch between machine representations and human concepts: dangers and remedies.'' FAST series No. 9 report. European Community, Brussels.
 +
* [[Ryszard Michalski]], [[Jaime Carbonell]], [[Tom Mitchell]] ('''1983'''). ''Machine Learning: An Artificial Intelligence Approach''. Tioga Publishing Company, [http://books.google.com/books?id=KlNQAAAAMAAJ&q=isbn:0935382054&dq=isbn:0935382054&hl=de&ei=JE4-TtymDInUsgbmm_kG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA google books]
 +
* [[Mathematician#TWinograd|Terry Winograd]] ('''1983'''). ''[https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1098647 Language as a cognitive process 1: Syntax]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley Addison-Wesley]
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==1985 ...==
 +
* [[Ryszard Michalski]], [[Jaime Carbonell]], [[Tom Mitchell]] ('''1985'''). ''Machine Learning: An Artificial Intelligence Approach''. Morgan Kaufmann, [http://books.google.com/books?id=TWzuUd5gsnkC&dq=isbn%3A0935382054&hl=de&source=gbs_book_other_versions google books]
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* [[Hermann Kaindl]] ('''1985'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=645759.666297 What Happened with AI's Drosophila]''? [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/%7Eley/db/conf/ogai/ogai1985.html ÖGAI 1985]: 194-203
 +
* [[Chin-Liang Chang]] ('''1985'''). ''Introduction to Artificial Intelligence Techniques''. JMA Press, [http://openlibrary.org/works/OL4956559W/Introduction_to_artificial_intelligence_techniques Open Library]
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Grabiner Judith V. Grabiner] ('''1986'''). ''Computers and the Nature of Man: A Historian's Perspective of Controversies about Artificial Intelligence''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_American_Mathematical_Society Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society], Vol. 15, No. 2, [http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1986-15-02/S0273-0979-1986-15461-3/S0273-0979-1986-15461-3.pdf pdf]
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* [[Ryszard Michalski]], [[Jaime Carbonell]], [[Tom Mitchell]] ('''1986'''). ''Machine Learning: An Artificial Intelligence Approach, Volume II''. Morgan Kaufmann, [http://books.google.com/books?id=f9RylgKpHZsC&dq=isbn%3A0935382054&hl=de&source=gbs_book_other_versions google books]
 +
* [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1986'''). ''[http://www.computer.org/csdl/trans/ts/1986/07/06312974-abs.html Whether Software Engineering Needs to Be Artificially Intelligent]''. [[IEEE#SE|IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering]], Vol. 12, No. 7
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* [[Mathematician#TWinograd|Terry Winograd]], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Flores Fernando Flores] ('''1987'''). ''[https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=576359 Understanding computers and cognition - a new foundation for design]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley Addison-Wesley]
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* [[Mathematician#JELaird|John E. Laird]], [[Allen Newell]], [[Paul S. Rosenbloom]] ('''1987'''). ''SOAR: An Architecture for General Intelligence''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_(journal) Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 33, No. 1
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* [[Christopher Chabris]] ('''1987'''). ''Artificial Intelligence and Turbo Pascal - Book and Disk''. Irwin Professional Pub, [http://www.amazon.com/Artificial-Intelligence-Turbo-Pascal-Book/dp/0870949632/ref=sr_1_10?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1352556486&sr=1-10 amazon.com] » [[Pascal#TurboPascal|Turbo Pascal]]
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* [[Marvin Minsky]] ('''1988'''). ''[http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/papers/ComputersCantThink.txt Why People Think Computers Can't]''. [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]
 +
* [[Marvin Minsky]] ('''1988'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Mind Society of Mind]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster Simon & Schuster] 
 +
* [[David E. Goldberg]] ('''1989'''). ''Genetic algorithms in search, optimization, and machine learning''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley Addison-Wesley], from [http://www.amazon.com/Genetic-Algorithms-Optimization-Machine-Learning/dp/0201157675 amazon.com]
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* [[Mikhail Donskoy]], [[Jonathan Schaeffer]] ('''1989'''). ''Perspectives on Falling from Grace''. [[WCCC 1989#Workshop|Workshop on New Directions in Game-Tree Search]], [http://webdocs.cs.ualberta.ca/~jonathan/publications/ai_publications/grace.pdf pdf], revised version published ('''1990'''). in [[Computers, Chess, and Cognition]]
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==1990 ...==
 +
* [[John McCarthy]] ('''1990'''). ''Chess as the Drosophila of AI.'' [[Computers, Chess, and Cognition]], pp. 227-237 <ref>[[John McCarthy]] ('''1997'''). ''Chess as the Drosophila of AI''. Computer Science Department, [[Stanford University]], condensed version of the 1990 paper, [http://innovation.it.uts.edu.au/projectjmc/articles/drosophila/drosophila.pdf pdf]</ref>
 +
* [[Mikhail Donskoy]], [[Jonathan Schaeffer]] ('''1990'''). ''Perspectives on Falling from Grace.'' [[Computers, Chess, and Cognition]]
 +
* [[Yves Kodratoff]], [[Ryszard Michalski]] ('''1990'''). ''Machine Learning: An Artificial Intelligence Approach, Volume III''. Morgan Kaufmann, [http://books.google.com/books?id=UDqCeuwVkkcC&dq=isbn%3A0935382054&hl=de&source=gbs_book_other_versions google books]
 +
* [[Richard Fikes]] ('''1990'''). ''AI and Software Engineering - Managing Exploratory Programming''. [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/aaai/aaai90.html#Fikes90 AAAI 1990]
 +
* [[Mathematician#NFindler|Nicholas V. Findler]] ('''1990'''). ''[http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-75736-5 Contributions to a Computer-Based Theory of Strategies]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Kurzweil Ray Kurzweil] ('''1990'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Intelligent_Machines The Age of Intelligent Machines]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press MIT Press]
 +
'''1991'''
 +
* [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1991'''). ''Artificial Intelligence: Where Has It Been, Where is it Going''? [[IEEE#TKDE|IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering]], Vol. 3, No. 2
 +
* [[Robert Levinson]], [[Feng-hsiung Hsu]], [[Tony Marsland]], [[Jonathan Schaeffer]], [[David Wilkins]] ('''1991'''). ''The Role of Chess in Artificial Intelligence Research''. [http://dli.iiit.ac.in/ijcai/IJCAI-91-VOL1/CONTENT/content.htm IJCAI 1991], [http://dli.iiit.ac.in/ijcai/IJCAI-91-VOL1/PDF/084.pdf pdf], also in [[ICGA Journal#14_3|ICCA Journal, Vol. 14, No. 3]], [http://www.ai.sri.com/%7Ewilkins/papers/chess-panel.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Peter W. Frey]] ('''1991'''). ''Memory-Based Expertise: Computer Chess vs. AI''. [[ICGA Journal#14_4|ICCA Journal, Vol. 14, No. 4]]
 +
* [[Dinesh Gadwal]], [http://www.cs.usask.ca/faculty/greer/ Jim Greer], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_McCalla Gordon McCalla] ('''1991'''). ''UMRAO: A Chess Endgame Tutor.'' ARIES Laboratory, Department of Computational Science, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Saskatchewan University of Saskatchewan], [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/ijcai/ijcai91.html IJCAI-91], [http://ijcai.org/Past%20Proceedings/IJCAI-91-VOL2/PDF/069.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Robert W. Howard]] ('''1991'''). ''All about Intelligence: Human, Animal, and Artificial''. New South Wales University Press Ltd, [http://www.amazon.com/All-About-Intelligence-Animal-Artificial/dp/0868402524 amazon.com]
 +
* [[Rajjan Shinghal]] ('''1991'''). ''Formal Concepts in Artificial Intelligence: Fundamentals''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapman_%26_Hall Chapman & Hall], [https://www.amazon.com/Formal-Concepts-Artificial-Intelligence-Fundamentals/dp/0412407906 amazon.com]
 +
'''1992'''
 +
* [[Patrick Winston]] ('''1992''') ''[http://people.csail.mit.edu/phw/Books/AIBACK.HTML Artificial Intelligence].'' (third Edition)
 +
* [[Peter Norvig]] ('''1992'''). ''[http://norvig.com/paip.html Paradigms of Artificial Intelligence Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp]''. [http://mkp.com/ Morgan Kaufmann]
 +
'''1993'''
 +
* [[Helmut Horacek]] ('''1993'''). ''Computer Chess, its Impact on Artificial Intelligence.'' [[ICGA Journal#16_1|ICCA Journal, Vol. 16, No. 1]] » [[WCCC 1992#Workshop|WCCC 1992 - Workshop]]
 +
* [[Matthew L. Ginsberg]] ('''1993'''). ''[http://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/2746445 Essentials of artificial intelligence]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers Morgan Kaufmann Publishers]
 +
* [[Paul S. Rosenbloom]], [[Mathematician#JELaird|John E. Laird]], [[Allen Newell]] ('''1993'''). ''The SOAR Papers: Research on Integrated Intelligence''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press MIT Press], [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Soar-Papers-Integrated-Intelligence-Artificial/dp/0262680718 amazon]
 +
'''1994'''
 +
* [[Victor Allis]] ('''1994'''). ''Searching for Solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence''. Ph.D. Thesis, [[Maastricht University|University of Limburg]], [http://fragrieu.free.fr/SearchingForSolutions.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Boris Stilman]] ('''1994'''). ''A Linguistic Geometry for Space Applications'', Proc. of the 1994 Goddard Conference on Space Applications of Artificial Intelligence, pp. 87-101, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA.
 +
* [[Ryszard Michalski]], [[George Tecuci]] ('''1994'''). ''Machine Learning: A Multistrategy Approach, Volume IV''. Morgan Kaufmann, [http://books.google.com/books?id=sQJ1PMEOOY0C&dq=isbn%3A0935382054&hl=de&source=gbs_book_other_versions google books]
 +
* [[L. Stephen Coles]] ('''1994'''). ''Computer Chess: The Drosophila of AI''. AI Expert, Vol. 9, No. 4, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_Freeman,_Inc. Miller Freeman, Inc.], [http://www.drdobbs.com/high-performance-computing/184405171 posted October 30, 2002] in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Dobb%27s_Journal Dr. Dobbs]
 +
==1995 ...==
 +
* [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1995'''). ''Explaining the Ineffable: AI on the Topics of Intuition, Insight and Inspiration''. [[Conferences#IJCAI1995|IJCAI 1995]], [http://www.ijcai.org/Past%20Proceedings/IJCAI-95-VOL%201/pdf/121.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1995'''). ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/000437029500039H Artificial Intelligence: An Empirical Science]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_%28journal%29 Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 77, No. 1
 +
* [[Jacques Pitrat]] ('''1995'''). ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=212124 AI Systems Are Dumb Because AI Researchers Are Too Clever]''. [[ACM#Surveys|ACM Computing Surveys]], [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/%7Eley/db/journals/csur/csur27.html#Pitrat95 Vol. 27, No. 3]
 +
* [[Edward Feigenbaum]], [[Mathematician#JulianFeldman|Julian Feldman]] (eds.) ('''1995'''). ''[http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=6685 Computers and Thought]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press MIT Press]
 +
* [[Jay Burmeister]], [[Janet Wiles]] ('''1995'''). ''The Challenge of Go as a Domain for AI Research: A Comparison Between Go and Chess''. In Proceedings of the Third Australian and New Zealand Conference on Intelligent Information Systems, [http://ewh.ieee.org/r10/w_australia/ IEEE Western Australia Section], [http://staff.itee.uq.edu.au/janetw/Computer%20Go/go-vs-chess.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Matjaž Gams]] ('''1995'''). ''Strong vs. Weak AI''. [https://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/journals/informaticaSI/informaticaSI19.html Informatica (Slovenia), Vol. 19], No. 4
 +
'''1996'''
 +
* [[Herbert Simon]] ('''1996'''). ''The Sciences of the Artificial''. [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=7688 MIT Press, 3rd Edition 1996], [http://www.amazon.com/Sciences-Artificial-Herbert-Simon/dp/0262691914 amazon]
 +
* [[Edward Feigenbaum|Edward A. Feigenbaum]] ('''1996''') ''How the “What“ Becomes the “How“''. [[ACM#Communications|Communications of the ACM]], Vol. 39, No. 5, [http://archive.computerhistory.org/projects/chess/related_materials/text/2-1.How_the_what_becomes_the_how.Feigenbaum/2-1.How_the_what_becomes_the_how.Feigenbaum-Ed.1994.ACM.062303006.pdf pdf] hosted by [[The Computer History Museum]]
 +
'''1997'''
 +
* [[Tony Marsland]], [[Yngvi Björnsson]]. ('''1997'''). ''From MiniMax to Manhattan''. In Deep Blue Versus Kasparov: The Significance for Artificial Intelligence. AAAI Workshop, pp. 31–36, 1997. [http://www.ru.is/faculty/yngvi/pdf/MarslandB97.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[John McCarthy]] ('''1997'''). ''Chess as the Drosophila of AI''. Computer Science Department, [[Stanford University]], condensed version of the 1990 paper, [http://innovation.it.uts.edu.au/projectjmc/articles/drosophila/drosophila.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Richard Korf]] ('''1997'''). ''Does DEEP BLUE use Artificial Intelligence?'' [[ICGA Journal#20_4|ICCA Journal, Vol. 20, No. 4]] <ref>[https://www.stmintz.com/ccc/index.php?id=14647 Re: ICCA Journal Sinks To A New Low] by [[Amir Ban]], [[CCC]], January 25, 1998</ref>
 +
* [[John McCarthy]] ('''1997'''). ''[http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/newborn/newborn.html AI as Sport].'' Science, Vol. 276
 +
* [[Santos Gerardo Lazzeri]], [[Rachelle Heller]] ('''1997'''). ''Application of Fuzzy Logic and Case-Based Reasoning to the Generation of High-Level Advice in Chess''. [[Advances in Computer Chess 8]]
 +
* [[Matjaž Gams]], [[Mathematician#MPaprzycki|Marcin Paprzycki]], [http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~xxw8007/ Xindong Wu] (eds.)  ('''1997'''). ''[https://www.iospress.nl/book/mind-versus-computer/ Mind Versus Computer: Were Dreyfus and Winograd Right?]'' [https://www.iospress.nl/bookserie/frontiers-in-artificial-intelligence-and-applications/ Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications], Vol. 43, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_Press IOS Press] <ref>[https://www.biblio.com/dunlop-charles-e-m/author/1216693 Charles E. M. Dunlop] ('''2000'''). ''Book Review 'Mind Versus Computer' ''. [https://link.springer.com/journal/11023 Minds and Machines], Vol. 10, No. 2</ref> <ref>[[Matjaž Gams]] ('''2002'''). ''[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1013746105950 The Turing machine may not be the universal machine]''. [https://link.springer.com/journal/11023 Minds and Machines], Vol. 12, No. 1</ref>
 +
'''1998'''
 +
* [[Franz-Günter Winkler]], [[Johannes Fürnkranz]] ('''1998'''). ''A Hypothesis on the Divergence of AI Research.'' [[ICGA Journal#21_1|ICCA Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1]], [http://members.aon.at/fgwinkler/PAPER/AI_chess.pdf pdf]
 +
* <span id="FundamentalsNAI1st"></span>[[Toshinori Munakata]] ('''1998'''). ''[http://cis.csuohio.edu/~munakata/publs/book/sp.html Fundamentals of the New Artificial Intelligence: Beyond Traditional Paradigms]''. 1st edition, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer], [[Artificial Intelligence#FundamentalsNAI2nd|2nd edition 2008]]
 +
'''1999'''
 +
* [[Mathematician#CJongeneel|Christian Jongeneel]] <ref>[[Mathematician#CJongeneel|Christian Jongeneel]] ('''1996'''). ''[http://repository.tudelft.nl/view/ir/uuid%3A384c7d0f-1869-4262-b8dd-e263637cb035/ The informatical worldview, an inquiry into the methodology of computer science]''. Ph.D. thesis, [[Delft University of Technology]], advisor [[Henk Koppelaar]], [http://www.christianjongeneel.nl/gepubliceerde-boeken/de-programmeur-en-de-kangoeroedans/the-evolution-of-information-in-man-and-machine/ The evolution of information in man and machine | Christian Jongeneel]</ref>, [[Henk Koppelaar]] ('''1999'''). ''[http://www.christianjongeneel.nl/gepubliceerde-boeken/goedel-pro-and-contra-ai-dismissal-of-the-case/ Gödel pro and contra AI: dismissal of the case]''. [http://www.journals.elsevier.com/engineering-applications-of-artificial-intelligence/ Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 12, No. 5
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Kurzweil Ray Kurzweil] ('''1999'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Spiritual_Machines The Age of Spiritual Machines]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Press Viking Press]
 +
==2000 ...==
 +
* [[Bart Selman]] ('''2000'''). ''Compute-intensive Methods in Artificial Intelligence''. [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/journals/amai/amai28.html#Selman00 Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 28, Nos. 1-4], [http://www.cs.cornell.edu/selman/papers/pdf/00.mathai.compute.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Ivan Bratko]] ('''2001,2010'''). ''[http://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=wikipedia&q=isbn%3A0201403757 Prolog programming for artificial intelligence]''.  Harlow England, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley Addison Wesley]
 +
* [[Monroe Newborn]] ('''2002'''). ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0387954619/qid=1092079555/sr=1-3/ref=sr_1_3/103-5426465-5223053?v=glance&s=books Deep Blue: An Artificial Intelligence Milestone]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer]
 +
* [[Jonathan Schaeffer]], [[Jaap van den Herik]] ('''2002'''). ''Games, computers, and artificial intelligence''. Artificial Intelligence 134, [http://www.acso.uneb.br/marcosimoes/Arquivos/IA/sdarticle_games.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Jürgen Schmidhuber]] ('''2003'''). ''[http://www.idsia.ch/%7Ejuergen/newai/newai.html The New AI:General & Sound & Relevant for Physics]''. Technical Report IDSIA-04-03
 +
* [[Eric B. Baum]] ('''2004'''). ''[http://www.whatisthought.com/ What is Thought?]'' Bradford Book
 +
* [[Mathematician#KWarwick|Kevin Warwick]] ('''2004'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_the_Machines March of the Machines: The Breakthrough in Artificial Intelligence]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press University of Illinois Press]
 +
* [[Mathematician#KWarwick|Kevin Warwick]] ('''2004'''). ''[http://kevinwarwick.coventry.ac.uk/I-Cyborg/ I, Cyborg]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press University of Illinois Press]
 +
==2005 ...==
 +
* [[Dap Hartmann]] ('''2005'''). ''The True Holy Grail of Artificial Intelligence''. [[ICGA Journal#28_1|ICGA Journal, Vol. 28, No. 1]]
 +
* [[David Levy]] ('''2005'''). ''[http://www.akpeters.com/robotsunlimited/ Robots Unlimited: Life in a Virtual Age]''. AK Peters
 +
* [[Marcus Hutter]] ('''2005'''). ''[http://www.hutter1.net/ai/uaibook.htm Universal Artificial Intelligence]''. Sequential Decisions based on Algorithmic Probability, [http://www.springer.com/computer/ai/book/978-3-540-22139-5 Springer]
 +
* [[Pieter Spronck]] ('''2005'''). ''Adaptive Game AI''. Ph.D. thesis, [[Maastricht University]], [http://ticc.uvt.nl/~pspronck/pubs/ThesisSpronck.pdf pdf]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Kurzweil Ray Kurzweil] ('''2005'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Singularity_Is_Near The Singularity Is Near]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Press Viking]
 +
'''2006'''
 +
* [[Azlan Iqbal]] ('''2006'''). ''Is Aesthetics Computable?'' [[ICGA Journal#29_1|ICGA Journal, Vol. 29, No. 1]], [http://metalab.uniten.edu.my/%7Eazlan/Research/pdfs/iac_azlan.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Max Bramer]] (ed.) ('''2006'''). ''[https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-0-387-34747-9 Artificial Intelligence in Theory and Practice]''. [[Conferences#IFIP19|IFIP 19th World Computer Congress]]. Proceedings. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer]
 +
'''2007'''
 +
* [[Edward Feigenbaum]] ('''2007'''). ''[https://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/1905 Happy Silver Anniversary, AI!]'' [https://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/index AI Magazine], Vol. 27, No. 4
 +
* [[Marvin Minsky]] ('''2007'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emotion_Machine The Emotion Machine: Commonsense Thinking, Artificial Intelligence, and the Future of the Human Mind]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster Simon & Schuster] <ref>[http://www.terasemjournals.org/PCJournal/PC0303/mm1.html Terasem Journal of Personal Cyberconsciousness - Marvin Lee Minsky discussing his book, The Emotion Machine] </ref>
 +
* [[David Levy]] ('''2007'''). ''Love and Sex With Robots: The Evolution of Human-Robot Relationships''. Harper Collins, [http://www.amazon.com/Love-Sex-Robots-Human-Robot-Relationships/dp/0061359750 amazon.com]
 +
* [[Jürgen Schmidhuber]] ('''2007'''). ''2006: Celebrating 75 years of AI - History and Outlook: the Next 25 Years''. [https://arxiv.org/abs/0708.4311 arXiv:0708.4311]
 +
'''2008'''
 +
* [[Guillaume Chaslot]], [[Sander Bakkes]], [[István Szita]], [[Pieter Spronck]] ('''2008'''). ''Monte-Carlo Tree Search: A New Framework for Game AI''. [http://sander.landofsand.com/publications/AIIDE08_Chaslot.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[István Szita]], [[Marc Ponsen]], [[Pieter Spronck]] ('''2008'''). ''Keeping Adaptive Game AI interesting''. [http://www.cgamesusa.com/08/ CGames 2008], [http://web.eotvos.elte.hu/szityu/papers/SzitaPonsenSpronck08Interesting.pdf pdf draft], [http://ticc.uvt.nl/~pspronck/pubs/CGAMES08Szita.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Brian Schwab]] ('''2008'''). ''[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Ai-Game-Engine-Programming/Brian-Schwab/e/9781584505723 AI Game Engine Programming]''. Second Edition, [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1584505729 amazon] » [[Faile]]
 +
* [[Mark Watson]] ('''2008'''). ''Practical Artificial Intelligence Programming With Java''. Third Edition, [http://www.markwatson.com/opencontent_data/JavaAI3rd.pdf pdf] <ref>[https://github.com/mark-watson Mark Watson · GitHub]</ref> » [[Java]]
 +
* [[Michael Thielscher]] ('''2008'''). ''Artificial Intelligence and General Game Playing''. [[Workshop Chess and Mathematics]] » [[General Game Playing]]
 +
* <span id="FundamentalsNAI2nd"></span>[[Toshinori Munakata]] ('''2008'''). ''[http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-84628-839-5 Fundamentals of the New Artificial Intelligence: Neural, Evolutionary, Fuzzy and More]''. 2nd edition, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer], [[Artificial Intelligence#FundamentalsNAI1st|1st edition 1998]]
 +
* [http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/lums/people/brian-bloomfield Brian Bloomfield], [http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/lums/people/theodore-vurdubakis Theodore Vurdubakis] ('''2008'''). ''[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01972240701883922 IBM's Chess Players: On AI and Its Supplements]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Information_Society The Information Society], Vol. 24, No. 2 » [[Deep Blue]]
 +
* [[Max Bramer]] (ed.) ('''2008'''). ''[https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-0-387-09695-7 Artificial Intelligence in Theory and Practice II]''. [[Conferences#IFIP20|IFIP 20th World Computer Congress]]. Proceedings. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer]
 +
'''2009'''
 +
* [[Stuart Russell]], [[Peter Norvig]] ('''2009'''). ''[http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/ Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach]''. 3rd edition <ref>[[Java]] [http://code.google.com/p/aima-java/ implementation of algorithms] from [[Peter Norvig|Norvig]] and [[Stuart Russell|Russell's]] ''[http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/ Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach]''. 3rd edition</ref>
 +
* [[Jacques Pitrat]] ('''2009'''). ''[http://www.iste.co.uk/index.php?f=a&ACTION=View&id=257 Artificial Beings: The Conscience of a Conscious Machine]''. Wiley
 +
* [[Diego Rasskin-Gutman]] ('''2009'''). ''[http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=11847 Chess Metaphors - Artificial Intelligence and the Human Mind]''. translated by [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/author/default.asp?aid=36831 Deborah Klosky], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press MIT Press] <ref>[http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=6097 Chess Metaphors – Artificial Intelligence and the Human Mind] by [[Diego Rasskin-Gutman]], [[ChessBase|ChessBase News]], January 28, 2010</ref>
 +
* [[Mathematician#NilsNilsson|Nils J. Nilsson]] ('''2009'''). ''[http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/computer-science/artificial-intelligence-and-natural-language-processing/quest-artificial-intelligence The Quest for Artificial Intelligence: A History of Ideas and Achievements]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press Cambridge University Press]
 +
* [[Zongmin Ma]] ('''2009'''). ''[http://www.igi-global.com/book/artificial-intelligence-maximizing-content-based/87 Artificial Intelligence for Maximizing Content Based Image Retrieval]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern_University_%28China%29 Northeastern University, China]
 +
* [[Shay Bushinsky]] ('''2009'''). ''[http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/2255 Deus Ex Machina— A Higher Creative Species in the Game of Chess]''. [[AAAI#AIMAG|AI Magazine]], Vol. 30, No. 3 » [[Artificial Intelligence#MachineCreativity|Machine Creativity]]
 +
* [[Max Bramer]] (ed.) ('''2009'''). ''[https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-642-03226-4 Artificial Intelligence: An International Perspective]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_Notes_in_Computer_Science LNCS], Vol. 5640, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer]
 +
==2010 ...==
 +
* [[Sander Bakkes]] ('''2010'''). ''Rapid Adaptation of Video Game AI''. Ph.D. thesis, [[Tilburg University]], [http://sander.landofsand.com/phdthesis/Sander_Bakkes_-_PhD_Thesis_Camera_Ready_Copy.pdf pdf] <ref>[[Dap Hartmann]] ('''2010'''). ''Sander Bakkes: Rapid Adaptation of Video Game AI''. Review, [[ICGA Journal#34_1|ICGA Journal, Vol. 34, No. 1]]</ref>
 +
* [[Pieter Spronck]] ('''2010'''). ''Adaptive Game AI''. [[Tilburg University]], [http://www.computingscience.nl/docs/vakken/mgmag/Adaptive%20Game%20AI%202010.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Paul S. Rosenbloom]] ('''2010'''). ''An Architectural Approach to Statistical Relational AI''. [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/aaai/stat2010.html#Rosenbloom10 Statistical Relational Artificial Intelligence 2010]
 +
* [[Max Bramer]] (ed.) ('''2010'''). ''[https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-642-15286-3 Artificial Intelligence in Theory and Practice III]''. [[Conferences#IFIP21|Third IFIP International Conference on Artificial Intelligence]]. Proceedings. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media Springer]
 +
'''2011'''
 +
* [[Joel Veness]] ('''2011'''). ''Approximate Universal Artificial Intelligence and Self-Play Learning for Games''. Ph.D. thesis, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales University of New South Wales], supervisors: [[Kee Siong Ng]], [[Marcus Hutter]], [[Alan Blair]], [[William Uther]], [[John Lloyd]]; [http://jveness.info/publications/veness_phd_thesis_final.pdf pdf]
 +
* [http://www-cs.ccny.cuny.edu/~cssjl/ Stephen Lucci], [[Danny Kopec]] ('''2011'''). ''[https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?id=148704398520615&story_fbid=177479219065436 Artificial Intelligence in the 21st Century]''. Mercury Learning and Information
 +
* [[Mathematician#KWarwick|Kevin Warwick]] ('''2011'''). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yLW7bwAACAAJ Artificial Intelligence: The Basics]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis Taylor & Francis]
 +
'''2012'''
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Kurzweil Ray Kurzweil] ('''2012'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind How to Create a Mind]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Press Viking Penguin]
 +
'''2013'''
 +
* [[Kieran Greer]] ('''2013'''). ''Is Intelligence Artificial?'' [http://arxiv.org/abs/1403.1076 arXiv:1403.1076]
 +
'''2014'''
 +
* [[Kieran Greer]] ('''2014'''). ''Turing: Then, Now and Still Key''. [http://arxiv.org/abs/1403.2541 arXiv:1403.2541] » [[Alan Turing]]
 +
* [[Danny Kopec]], Shweta Shetty, [https://www.linkedin.com/in/pileggichristopher Christopher Pileggi] ('''2014'''). ''[http://www.merclearning.com/titles/Artificial-Intelligence-Problems-and-Their-Solutions.html Artificial Intelligence Problems and Their Solutions]''. Mercury Learning and Information
 +
* [[Cameron Browne]] ('''2014'''). ''What Can Game AI Teach Us''? [[ICGA Journal#37_3|ICGA Journal, Vol. 37, No. 3]]
 +
* [[Héctor Muñoz-Avila]], [[David J. Stracuzzi]] ('''2014'''). ''[http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/2498 Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence 2013]''. [[AAAI#AIMAG|AI Magazine]], Vol. 35, No. 1
 +
* [[Stuart Russell]] ('''2014'''). ''Unifying Logic and Probability: A New Dawn for AI''?  [https://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/ipmu/ipmu2014-1.html IPMU 2014], [https://people.eecs.berkeley.edu/~russell/papers/ipmu14-oupm.pdf pdf]
 +
* [[Stephen Muggleton]] ('''2014'''). ''Alan Turing and the development of Artificial Intelligence''. [https://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/journals/aicom/aicom27.html AI Communications, Vol. 27], No. 1, [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~shm/Papers/TuringAI_1.pdf pdf]
 +
==2015 ...==
 +
* [[Susan L. Epstein]] ('''2015'''). ''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0004370214001568 Wanted: Collaborative Intelligence]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_%28journal%29 Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 221
 +
* [[Jaap van den Herik]] ('''2015'''). ''Computers and Intuition''. [[ICGA Journal#38_4|ICGA Journal, Vol. 38, No. 4]]
 +
'''2016'''
 +
* [[Jaap van den Herik]] ('''2016'''). ''[https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/news/2016/01/jaap-van-den-herik-intuition-is-programmable Intuition is Programmable]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valedictorian Valedictory Address] from [[Tilburg University]]
 +
* [[Azlan Iqbal]], [[Matej Guid]], [[Simon Colton]], [[Jana Krivec]], [[Shazril Azman]], [[Boshra Haghighi]] ('''2016'''). ''The Digital Synaptic Neural Substrate: A New Approach to Computational Creativity''. [https://arxiv.org/abs/1507.07058 arXiv:1507.07058] » [[Artificial Intelligence#MachineCreativity|Machine Creativity]]
 +
'''2017'''
 +
* [[Garry Kasparov]] ('''2017'''). ''Don’t Fear Intelligent Machines: Work with Them''. [[ICGA Journal#39_2|ICGA Journal, Vol. 39, No. 2]]  <ref>[https://www.ted.com/talks/garry_kasparov_don_t_fear_intelligent_machines_work_with_them/transcript Transcript] of [https://www.ted.com/speakers/garry_kasparov Kasparov’s TED talk],  May 2017</ref>
 +
 +
==AI Game Programming Wisdom==
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Rabin Steve Rabin] (editor) ('''2002'''). ''[http://www.aiwisdom.com/resource_aiwisdom.html AI Game Programming Wisdom]''. Charles River Media
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Rabin Steve Rabin] (editor) ('''2003'''). ''[http://www.aiwisdom.com/resource_aiwisdom2.html AI Game Programming Wisdom 2]''. Charles River Media
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Rabin Steve Rabin] (editor) ('''2006'''). ''[http://www.aiwisdom.com/resource_aiwisdom3.html AI Game Programming Wisdom 3]''. Charles River Media
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Rabin Steve Rabin] (editor) ('''2008'''). ''[http://www.aiwisdom.com/resource_aiwisdom4.html AI Game Programming Wisdom 4]''. Charles River Media
 +
 +
=Forum Posts=
 +
==1994 ...==
 +
* [https://groups.google.com/d/msg/rec.games.chess/R-AxfAZ95gY/kmBYccNriNkJ chess and AI] by David Deininger, [[Computer Chess Forums|rgc]], April 11, 1994
 +
* [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.chess.computer/browse_frm/thread/92e542466e76432b Artificial Intelligence] by [[Fernando Villegas|Fernando Villegas Darroui]], [[Computer Chess Forums|rgcc]], May 13, 1997
 +
* [https://www.stmintz.com/ccc/index.php?id=14685 Artificial Intelligence] by [[Daniel Homan]], [[CCC]], January 126, 1998
 +
==2000 ...==
 +
* [https://www.stmintz.com/ccc/index.php?id=357095 Artificial Intelligence in Computer Chess] by [[Artem Petakov|Artem Pyatakov]], [[CCC]], March 28, 2004
 +
* [https://www.stmintz.com/ccc/index.php?id=357112 Re: Artificial Intelligence in Computer Chess - *DETAILS* as promised] by [[Artem Petakov|Artem Pyatakov]], [[CCC]], March 28, 2004 » [[History Heuristic]]
 +
* [https://www.stmintz.com/ccc/index.php?id=419893 Fruit fly races] by [[Steven Edwards]], [[CCC]], April 06, 2005
 +
==2010 ...==
 +
* [http://www.open-chess.org/viewtopic.php?f=5&t=2539 what constitutes AI?] by stackOVERFLOW, [[Computer Chess Forums|OpenChess Forum]], December 14, 2013
 +
* [http://www.talkchess.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=64158 Scientific American article on Computer Chess] by [[Mark Lefler]], [[CCC]], June 03, 2017 <ref>[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-deep-blue-how-ai-has-advanced-since-conquering-chess/ 20 Years after Deep Blue: How AI Has Advanced Since Conquering Chess] by [https://www.crunchbase.com/person/larry-greenemeier Larry Greenemeier], [[Scientific American]], June 2, 2017</ref> » [[Kasparov versus Deep Blue 1997]]
 +
 +
=External Links=
 +
==Pedia==
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence Artificial intelligence from Wikipedia]
 +
* [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/artificial_intelligence.html Artificial intelligence], [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/ETEmain.html The Encyclopedia of Science] by [[David Darling]]
 +
* <span id="distributed"></span>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_artificial_intelligence Distributed artificial intelligence from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_AI Strong AI from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_AI Weak AI from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_artificial_intelligence History of artificial intelligence from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_winter AI winter from Wikipedia]
 +
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_winter#The_abandonment_of_connectionism_in_1969 The abandonment of connectionism in 1969]  <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism Connectionism from Wikipedia]</ref> <ref>[[Marvin Minsky]], [[Mathematician#SPapert|Seymour Papert]] ('''1969'''). ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptrons_%28book%29 Perceptrons]''.</ref>
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence Ethics of artificial intelligence from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence Philosophy of artificial intelligence from Wikipedia]
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: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_symbol_system Physical symbol system from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence Timeline of artificial intelligence from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_intelligence Computational intelligence from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborative_intelligence Collaborative intelligence from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_intelligence Collective intelligence from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superintelligence Superintelligence from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularity Technological singularity from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singularity_Institute_for_Artificial_Intelligence Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence from Wikipedia]
 +
* [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia_of_computational_intelligence Encyclopedia of computational intelligence - Scholarpedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_life Artificial life from Wikipedia]
 +
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_organism Digital organism from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality Virtual reality from Wikipedia]
 +
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_world Virtual world from Wikipedia]
 +
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Life Second Life from Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_computation Evolutionary computation from Wikipedia]
 +
 +
==AI in Media==
 +
* [http://www.bbc.com/future/tags/artificialintelligence BBC - Future - Artificial intelligence]
 +
: [http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20151201-the-cyborg-chess-players-that-cant-be-beaten BBC - Future - The cyborg chess players that can’t be beaten] by [http://www.chrisbaraniuk.com/ Chris Baraniuk], December 04, 2015 » [[David Levy]], [[Boris Alterman]], [[Shay Bushinsky]], [[Mark Lefler]]
 +
 +
==Famous AI Programs==
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_Theorist Logic Theorist] by [[Allen Newell]], [[Herbert Simon]] and [[Cliff Shaw]]
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Problem_Solver General Problem Solver] by [[Herbert Simon]], [[Cliff Shaw]] and [[Allen Newell]]
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELIZA Eliza] by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Weizenbaum Joseph Weizenbaum]
 +
<span id="MachineCreativity"></span>
 +
==Machine Creativity==
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_creativity Computational creativity from Wikipedia]
 +
* [http://en.chessbase.com/post/machine-creativity-what-it-is-and-what-it-isn-t Machine creativity: what it is and what it isn't] by [[Albert Silver]], [[ChessBase|ChessBase News]], August 28, 2016 » [[AlphaGo]]
 +
* [http://en.chessbase.com/post/creativity-why-it-cannot-be-a-machine-property Creativity: Why it cannot be a machine property] by [[Ofer Shamai]], [[ChessBase|ChessBase News]], October 01, 2016
 +
 +
==Associations==
 +
* [http://www.aaai.org/home.html Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence] (AAAI) (formerly the American Association for Artificial Intelligence)
 +
: [http://www.aaai.org/aitopics/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/AITopics/HomePage AITopics / HomePage]
 +
: [http://www.aaai.org/aitopics/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/AITopics/AINews AITopics / AINews]
 +
* [http://www.ijcai.org/ International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence] (IJCAI), [[Conferences#IJCAI|IJCAI Conferences]]
 +
* [http://www.aisb.org.uk/ Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and Simulation of Behaviour] (SSAISB)
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<span id="Journals"></span>
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==Journals==
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* [http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/505601/description#description Artificial Intelligence - Elsevier]
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: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00043702 ScienceDirect - Artificial Intelligence - Online Access]
 +
: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_%28journal%29 Artificial Intelligence (journal) from Wikipedia]
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* [http://www.aaai.org/Library/Magazine/magazine-library.php AAAI Digital Library — AI Magazine]
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* [http://www.aaai.org/Publications/Journals/sponsored-journals.php AAAI Sponsored Journals]
 +
* [http://www.aaai.org/Press/press.php AAAI Press]
 +
* [http://www.jair.org/ Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research (JAIR)]
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* [http://www.computer.org/portal/web/tpami/ IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (PAMI)]
 +
* [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/%7Eshm/MI/mi.html Machine Intelligence series], [[Donald Michie]], [[Stephen Muggleton]]
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 +
==Online Courses==
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_OpenCourseWare MIT OpenCourseWare] tries to put as much [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] course material online as possible. Here are two courses on Artificial Intelligence:
 +
: [http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-034-artificial-intelligence-spring-2005/ 6,034 Artificial Intelligence, Spring 2005]
 +
: [http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-034-artificial-intelligence-fall-2010/ 6.034 Artificial Intelligence, Fall 2010], [[Patrick Winston#AI_Lectures|Video Lectures]] by [[Patrick Winston]]
 +
* <span id="UdacityAICourse"></span>[https://www.udacity.com/course/cs271 Intro to Artificial Intelligence Course Overview] by [[Sebastian Thrun]] ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udacity Udacity]) and [[Peter Norvig]]
 +
* Joint [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Television_Society RTS]/[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution_of_Engineering_and_Technology_%28professional_society%29 IET] [http://www.theiet.org/events/2015/224630.cfm Public Lecture] with [[Google]] [[DeepMind|DeepMind's]] [[Demis Hassabis]], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum British Museum], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London London], November 04, 2015, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube YouTube] Video
 +
: {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0X-NdPtFKq0|alignment=left|valignment=top}}
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 +
==Misc==
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watson_%28artificial_intelligence_software%29 Watson (artificial intelligence software) from Wikipedia]
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* [http://www.drdobbs.com/high-performance-computing/184405171 Computer Chess: The Drosophila of AI] by [[L. Stephen Coles]], October 30, 2002, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Dobb%27s_Journal Dr. Dobbs], republished 1994 article
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* [http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/ Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach] by [[Stuart Russell]] and [[Peter Norvig]]
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: [http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/ai.html AI on the Web]
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* [http://intelligence.worldofcomputing.net/ Articles On Artificial Intelligence]
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* [http://www.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave/AI2/AI_notes.html Artificial Intelligence II] by [http://blogs.gartner.com/nikos_drakos/ Nikos Drakos], Computer Based Learning Unit, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Leeds University of Leeds]
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* [http://www.idsia.ch/%7Ejuergen/ai.html Artificial Intelligence] by [[Jürgen Schmidhuber]]
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* [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/project/ai-repository/ai/0.html Artificial Intelligence Repository] from [[Carnegie Mellon University]]
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* [http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/about/AIhistory.html Artificial Intelligence at Edinburgh University: a Perspective] by [http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/student-services/teaching-organisation/for-taught-students/information-about-our-sponsors/jim-howe Jim Howe], [[University of Edinburgh]]
 +
* [http://www.aiai.ed.ac.uk/events/ccs2002/ Artificial Intelligence - Recollections of the Pioneers]
 +
* [http://bootstrappingartificialintelligence.fr/WordPress3/ My view on Artificial Intelligence | Just another WordPress site] by [[Jacques Pitrat]]
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* [http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/intelligence05/MMhistory.html The “Modern” History of Artificial Intelligence and Programs] from [http://www.macalester.edu/academics/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/intelligence05/index.html Neuroscience Of Intelligence]
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* [http://members.aon.at/fgwinkler/cognition.html Cognitive Science and Artificial Intelligence] by [[Franz-Günter Winkler]]
 +
* [http://www.scienceclarified.com/scitech/Artificial-Intelligence/index.html Science Clarified » Artificial Intelligence]
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* [http://ai-contest.com/rankings.php Google AI Challenge] Organized by the [[University of Waterloo]] [http://csclub.uwaterloo.ca/ Computer Science Club] and sponsored by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google Google]
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.I._Artificial_Intelligence A.I. Artificial Intelligence (film) from Wikipedia]
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachings_from_the_Electronic_Brain Teachings from the Electronic Brain] from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikipedia]
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* [http://wdstalks.blogspot.de/2013/03/the-future-of-computers-ai-artificial.html The Future of Computers, AI (artificial intelligence), etc -- aka, You're gonna die, sucker] by [[Warren D. Smith]], March 07, 2013
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fludd Fludd's] description of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception perception], 1619 <ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence Intelligence from Wikipedia]</ref>
  
 
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'''[[Main Page|Home]]'''
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Revision as of 22:58, 18 March 2019

Home * Artificial Intelligence

Bernd Besser, computerzeitalter [1]

Artificial Intelligence, (AI)
the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. While 'machine intelligence' was already mentioned by Alan Turing in the 1940s during his research at Bletchley Park [2] [3] , the term 'artificial intelligence' was coined by John McCarthy in the proposal for the 1956 Dartmouth Conference [4] . In its beginning, Computer Chess was called the Drosophila of Artificial Intelligence. In the 70s, when brute-force programs started to dominate, and competitive and commercial aspects have taken precedence over using chess as a scientific domain, the AI community more and more lost interest in chess [5] . In disagreement with the AI establishment in the 80s, Peter W. Frey concluded, that the AI community should follow computer chess methods rather than the other way around [6] .

Drosophila of AI

Donald Michie

Quote from I remember Donald Michie by Maarten van Emden [7] :

In the 1970s DM was fond of proclaiming “Chess, the Drosophila Melanogaster of Artificial Intelligence”. A public pronouncement of his point of view can be found in an interview with H.J. van den Herik held in 1981 (“Computerschaak, schaakwereld en kunstmatige intelligentie” by H.J. van den Herik, Academic Service, 1983) [8] . It is a long interview, from which I quote DM’s answer to the question: “What do you think about the applicability of the research done in computer chess?” 
The applicability is I think enormous and quite critical. Scientific study of computer chess, which includes the technological work, but goes far beyond that, is the most important scientific study that is going in the world at present. In the same sense, if I were asked what was the most important study in process during the first world war, I would say the genetic breeding experiments on the drosophila fruit fly by Morgan and his colleagues. The analogy is very good. The final impact of the early work in laying down the basic theoretical framework for the subject was just enormous, unimaginable. We see now the industrial take-off of genetic engineering which is the delayed final outcome for human society of the fly-breeding work. The use of chess now as a preliminary to the knowledge engineering and cognitive engineering of the future is exactly similar, in my opinion, to the work on drosophila. It should be encouraged in a very intense way, for these reasons. 

John McCarthy

Quote by John McCarthy from What is Artificial Intelligence? [9] [10]:

Alexander Kronrod, a Russian AI researcher, said 'Chess is the Drosophila of AI.' He was making an analogy with geneticists' use of that fruit fly to study inheritance. Playing chess requires certain intellectual mechanisms and not others. Chess programs now play at grandmaster level, but they do it with limited intellectual mechanisms compared to those used by a human chess player, substituting large amounts of computation for understanding. Once we understand these mechanisms better, we can build human-level chess programs that do far less computation than do present programs. Unfortunately, the competitive and commercial aspects of making computers play chess have taken precedence over using chess as a scientific domain. It is as if the geneticists after 1910 had organized fruit fly races and concentrated their efforts on breeding fruit flies that could win these races.

Anthony Cozzie

Anthony Cozzie in a forum discussion about McCarthy's statement [11] [12] :

First, the author of this quote is simple WRONG. The generally accepted theory of how humans play chess is that the brain does fuzzy matching on a database of several hundred thousand positions. The amount of computation needed to do that is FAR greater than the amount expended by a "conventional" AB searcher, and yet the computer plays MUCH better than the average human. The simple fact of the matter, which you refuse to recognize, is that AB-search with reasonable heuristics is the most efficient way to play chess with Von Neuman machines.
Secondly, the existence of current amateur and commercial programs does nothing to prevent you from writing whatever kind of chess playing agent you want. If you want to experiment, no one is stopping you or him from applying to NSF for research money and giving it a shot. The existence of "fruit fly races" - and his fruit fly analogy is totally flawed. A better analogy would be that a geneticist decided to make a fruit fly that could run faster than a human - does nothing to prevent casual study of one's own fruit flies. 

Heuristic Programming

Remembering Kronrod

Quote from Remembering A.S. Kronrod by Evgenii Landis and Isaak Yaglom [13]:

Only in 1955 did a real opportunity arise for A.S. Kronrod to work with an electronic computer. It was the M­2 computer constructed by I.S. Bruk, M.A. Kartsev, and N.Ya. Matyukhin in the laboratory of the Institute of Energy named after Krzhizhanovsky and directed by I.S. Bruk. This laboratory later became the to Institute for Electronic Control Machines. The mathematics/machine interface was developed by A.L. Brudno, a great personal and like­minded friend of A.S. Kronrod.
When he started with enthusiasm to program the M­2 machine, A.S. Kronrod quickly came to the conclusion that computing is not the main application of computers. The main goal is to teach the computer to think, i.e., what is now called "artificial intelligence" and in those days "heuristic programming".
A.S. Kronrod captivated a large group of mathematicians and physicists (G.M. Adelson ­Velsky, A.L. Brudno, M.M. Bongard, E.M. Landis, N.N. Konstantinov, and others). Although some of them had arrived at this kind of problems on their own, they unconditionally accepted his leadership. In the room next to the one housing the M­2 machine the work of the new Kronrod seminar started. At the gatherings there were heated discussions on pattern recognition problems (this work was led by M.M. Bongard; versions of his program "Kora" are still functioning), transportation problems (the problem was introduced to the seminar and actively worked on by A.L. Brudno), problems of automata theory, and many other problems.

Intellectual Foundations

Quote from Biography AS Kronrod by Alexander Yershov [14]

In 1958, Kronrod, Adelson-Velsky, and Landis selected "Snap" ("подкидного дурака") as the intellectual foundations for the development of the game heuristic programming [15]. The program itself was a fiasco - but the basic principles (board games, search techniques and limited depth) were formulated. Further research laboratories in the field of game theory culminated in the first ever chess duel between the program of the Institute of Soviet and American best program developed at Stanford University under the direction of J. McCarthy. By telegraph match was played in four games ended 3-1 in favor of our institute. At the time, chess became a guinea pig for all programmers interested in artificial intelligence.

The 12th IJCAI

In a panel discussion at the 12th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Robert Levinson, Feng-hsiung Hsu, Tony Marsland, Jonathan Schaeffer, and David Wilkins commented on the relationship between computer chess and AI research [16] . As pointed out by Peter W. Frey, many emphasized the discrepancy between both domains and seemed to lament the inferiour status of the work of computer chess - some excerpts quoted by Frey in his Computer Chess vs. AI paper [17] .

Jonathan Schaeffer

 Sadly, most of the work currently being done on computer chess programs is engineering, not science. For example, the engineering of special-purpose VLSI chips to increase the speed of a chess program only underlines the importance chess programmers attach to speed. In my opinion, conventional computer-chess methods will yield little of further interest to the AI community. 

Tony Marsland

 Pruning by analogy is a powerful general-purpose tool and if developed satisfactorily for a perfect information game like chess would almost certainly be applicable to related decision-tree searches...
It is remarkable that no significant improvement has been made to that method, despite the passage of 15 years. Not even attempts to implement simple forms of the idea in serious chess programs. 

Robert Levinson

Psychological evidence indicates that human chess players search very few positions, and base their positional assessments on structural/perceptual patterns learned through experience.
The main objectives of the project are to demonstrate capacity of the system to learn, to deepen our understanding of the interaction of knowledge and search, and to build bridges in this area between AI and cognitive science. 

David Wilkins

Hardware advances have made chess a less fertile ground for addressing the basic issues of AI. The game is small enough that brute-force search techniques have dominated competitive computer chess, and I see little AI interest in squeezing out the last few hundred points on the chess ratings. 

AI as Sport

John McCarthy from AI as Sport, 1997 [18] , in a review of Monty Newborn's Deep Blue vs. Kasparov [19] :

Now that computers have reached world-champion level, it is time for chess to become a Drosophila again. Champion-level play is possible with enormously less computation than Deep Blue and its recent competitors use. Tournaments should admit programs only with severe limits on computation. This would concentrate attention on scientific advances. Perhaps a personal computer manufacturer would sponsor a tournament with one second allowed per move on a machine of a single design. Tournaments in which players use computers to check out lines of play would be man-machine collaboration rather than just competition.
Besides AI work aimed at tournament play, particular aspects of the game have illuminated the intellectual mechanisms involved. Barbara Liskov demonstrated that what chess books teach about how to win certain endgames is not a program but more like a predicate comparing two positions to see if one is an improvement on the other. Such qualitative comparisons are an important feature of human intelligence and are needed for AI. Donald Michie, Ivan Bratko, Alen Shapiro, David Wilkins, and others have also used chess as a Drosophila to study intelligence. Newborn ignores this work, because it is not oriented to tournament play. 

Making Computer Chess Scientific

A further note by John McCarthy from Making Computer Chess Scientific [20] :

AI has two tools for tackling problems. One is to use methods observed in humans, often observed only by introspection, and the other is to invent methods using ideas of computer science without worrying about whether humans do it this way. Chess programming employs both. Introspection is an unreliable way of determining how humans think, but introspectively suggested methods are valid as AI if they work.
Much of the mental computation done by chess players is invisible to the player and to outside observers. Patterns in the position suggest what lines of play to look at, and the pattern recognition processes in the human mind seem to be invisible to that mind. However, the parts of the move tree that are examined are consciously accessible.
It is an important advantage of chess as a Drosophila for AI that so much of the thought that goes into human chess play is visible to the player and even to spectators. When chess players argue about what is the right move in a position, they follow out lines of play, i.e. argue explicitly about parts of the move tree. Moreover, when a player is found to have made a mistake, it is almost always a failure to follow out a certain line of play rather than a misevaluation of a final position. 

Go, the new Drosophila of AI

A quote by Gian-Carlo Pascutto on AI in Go and Chess [21] :

There is no significant difference between an alpha-beta search with heavy LMR and a static evaluator (current state of the art in chess) and an UCT searcher with a small exploration constant that does playouts (state of the art in go).
The shape of the tree they search is very similar. The main breakthrough in Go the last few years was how to backup an uncertain Monte Carlo score. This was solved. For chess this same problem was solved around the time quiescent search was developed.
Both are producing strong programs and we've proven for both the methods that they scale in strength as hardware speed goes up.
So I would say that we've successfully adopted the simple, brute force methods for chess to Go and they already work without increases in computer speed. The increases will make them progressively stronger though, and with further software tweaks they will eventually surpass humans. 

Poker, the next Challenge

Graham Kendall and Jonathan Schaeffer on Poker [22] :

For many years Chess (and perhaps more recently Go) has served as the Drosophila of AI research. Decades of research culminated in the defeat of Garry Kasparov by DEEP BLUE in May 1997. There is still an active research community that uses Chess as a test-bed for AI research (as seen in this journal), but the game is limited in the types of challenges that it can offer to the AI researcher. Being a game of perfect information (both players know the full state of the game at any given point) with a relatively small branching factor, researchers have reduced the challenge of building a strong AI for Chess to merely one of deep brute-force search. The research challenges are to create a good evaluation function, and to design an effective search algorithm. This “solution” to Chess is unappealing to many AI purists. Nevertheless, alternative AI approaches have been largely ineffective.

Poker, as an experimental test-bed for exploring AI, is a much richer domain than Chess (and Go).

  1. Imperfect information. Parts of the game state (opponent hands) are not known.
  2. Multiple players. Many popular poker variants can be played with up to 10 players.
  3. Stochastic. The dealing of the cards adds a random element to the game.
  4. Deception. Predictable play can be exploited by an opponent. Hence, deceptive play is an essential ingredient of strong play (e.g., bluffing).
  5. Opponent modelling. Observing your opponent(s) and adjusting your play to exploit (perceived) opponent tendencies is necessary to maximize poker winnings.
  6. Information sparsity. Many poker hands end in the players not revealing their cards. This limits the amount of data available to learn from.

Subfields

Deep Learning

See also

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AI Game Programming Wisdom

Forum Posts

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External Links

Pedia

The abandonment of connectionism in 1969 [42] [43]
Physical symbol system from Wikipedia
Digital organism from Wikipedia
Virtual world from Wikipedia
Second Life from Wikipedia

AI in Media

BBC - Future - The cyborg chess players that can’t be beaten by Chris Baraniuk, December 04, 2015 » David Levy, Boris Alterman, Shay Bushinsky, Mark Lefler

Famous AI Programs

Machine Creativity

Associations

AITopics / HomePage
AITopics / AINews

Journals

ScienceDirect - Artificial Intelligence - Online Access
Artificial Intelligence (journal) from Wikipedia

Online Courses

  • MIT OpenCourseWare tries to put as much MIT course material online as possible. Here are two courses on Artificial Intelligence:
6,034 Artificial Intelligence, Spring 2005
6.034 Artificial Intelligence, Fall 2010, Video Lectures by Patrick Winston

Misc

AI on the Web

References

  1. Schaakkunst Bernd Besser
  2. Alan Turing Scrapbook - the Origins of Artificial Intelligence by Andrew Hodges
  3. B. Jack Copeland, Diane Proudfoot (2011-2012). Turing, Father of the Modern Computer. The Rutherford Journal - The New Zealand Journal for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, Vol. 4 » with photos of Alan Turing, John von Neumann, Dietrich Prinz, Christopher Strachey, Jack Good, Arthur Samuel, Herbert Simon, Allen Newell, ...
  4. John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, Claude Shannon (1955). A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence.
  5. Hermann Kaindl (1985). What Happened with AI's Drosophila? ÖGAI 1985: 194-203
  6. Peter W. Frey (1991). Memory-Based Expertise: Computer Chess vs. AI, ICCA Journal, Vol. 14, No. 4
  7. I remember Donald Michie (1923 – 2007) « A Programmers Place by Maarten van Emden, June 12, 2009
  8. Jaap van den Herik (1981). Computer Chess Today and Tomorrow: An Interview with Donald Michie. Computer Chess Digest Annual 1984
  9. John McCarthy (1989). The Fruitfly on the Fly. ICCA Journal, Vol. 12, No. 4
  10. John McCarthy (1990). Chess as the Drosophila of AI. Computers, Chess, and Cognition, pp. 227-237
  11. Fruit fly races by Steven Edwards, CCC, April 06, 2005
  12. Re: Fruit fly races by Anthony Cozzie, CCC, April 06, 2005
  13. Evgenii Landis, Isaak Yaglom (1987). Remembering A.S. Kronrod. (2002). Translation by Viola Brudno, Edited by Walter Gautschi, ps
  14. Биография А.С. Кронрода (Biography AS Kronrod) by Alexander Yershov
  15. Boris Polyak. Memories.
  16. Robert Levinson, Feng-hsiung Hsu, Tony Marsland, Jonathan Schaeffer, David Wilkins (1991). The Role of Chess in Artificial Intelligence Research. IJCAI 1991, pdf, also in ICCA Journal, Vol. 14, No. 3, pdf
  17. Peter W. Frey (1991). Memory-Based Expertise: Computer Chess vs. AI. ICCA Journal, Vol. 14, No. 4
  18. John McCarthy (1997). AI as Sport. Science, Vol. 276
  19. Monroe Newborn (1997). Kasparov versus DEEP BLUE: Computer Chess Comes of Age. Springer
  20. Making Computer Chess Scientific by John McCarthy
  21. Re: Chess vs Go // AI vs IA by Gian-Carlo Pascutto, June 02, 2010
  22. Graham Kendall, Jonathan Schaeffer (2006). Poker. ICGA Journal, Vol. 29, No. 3
  23. Rosenblatt's Contributions
  24. General Problem Solver from Wikipedia
  25. Publications of John Maynard Smith (pdf)
  26. The abandonment of connectionism in 1969 - Wikipedia
  27. Frank Rosenblatt (1962). Principles of Neurodynamics: Perceptrons and the Theory of Brain Mechanisms. Spartan Books
  28. Physical symbol system from Wikipedia
  29. K-line (artificial intelligence) from Wikipedia
  30. John McCarthy (1997). Chess as the Drosophila of AI. Computer Science Department, Stanford University, condensed version of the 1990 paper, pdf
  31. Re: ICCA Journal Sinks To A New Low by Amir Ban, CCC, January 25, 1998
  32. Charles E. M. Dunlop (2000). Book Review 'Mind Versus Computer' . Minds and Machines, Vol. 10, No. 2
  33. Matjaž Gams (2002). The Turing machine may not be the universal machine. Minds and Machines, Vol. 12, No. 1
  34. Christian Jongeneel (1996). The informatical worldview, an inquiry into the methodology of computer science. Ph.D. thesis, Delft University of Technology, advisor Henk Koppelaar, The evolution of information in man and machine | Christian Jongeneel
  35. Terasem Journal of Personal Cyberconsciousness - Marvin Lee Minsky discussing his book, The Emotion Machine
  36. Mark Watson · GitHub
  37. Java implementation of algorithms from Norvig and Russell's Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. 3rd edition
  38. Chess Metaphors – Artificial Intelligence and the Human Mind by Diego Rasskin-Gutman, ChessBase News, January 28, 2010
  39. Dap Hartmann (2010). Sander Bakkes: Rapid Adaptation of Video Game AI. Review, ICGA Journal, Vol. 34, No. 1
  40. Transcript of Kasparov’s TED talk, May 2017
  41. 20 Years after Deep Blue: How AI Has Advanced Since Conquering Chess by Larry Greenemeier, Scientific American, June 2, 2017
  42. Connectionism from Wikipedia
  43. Marvin Minsky, Seymour Papert (1969). Perceptrons.
  44. Intelligence from Wikipedia

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